Onderzoeksmethoden Research Methods

Tag: Research Design

  • Emotional Involvement in Film

    Emotional involvement in film is a complex psychological phenomenon that occurs when a viewer becomes deeply engaged with the characters and events depicted on the screen. This involvement can be driven by a variety of factors, including empathy with the characters, identification with their struggles, and the emotional impact of the film’s themes and messages. In this essay, we will explore the research on emotional involvement in film and its effects on viewers.

    Empathy and Emotional Involvement

    One of the primary factors that drive emotional involvement in film is empathy with the characters. Empathy is the ability to share in the feelings and experiences of others, and it has been found to play a key role in emotional engagement with film (Bal & Veltkamp, 2013). When viewers feel empathy with a character, they are more likely to become emotionally involved in their story and to experience a range of emotions that mirror the character’s own.

    Studies have shown that empathy can be a powerful driver of emotional involvement in film. For example, a study by Bal and Veltkamp (2013) found that viewers who felt high levels of empathy with the protagonist of a film experienced more emotional involvement with the story and reported greater emotional reactions to the film overall. Similarly, a study by Hanich, Wagner, Shah, Jacobsen, and Menninghaus (2014) found that viewers who felt high levels of empathy with a character were more likely to report feeling emotionally transported by the film, a state in which they become fully absorbed in the story and lose awareness of their surroundings.

    Identification and Emotional Involvement

    Another factor that can drive emotional involvement in film is identification with the characters. Identification refers to the process by which viewers see themselves in the characters on the screen and become emotionally invested in their struggles and triumphs (Cohen, 2001). This identification can be facilitated by a variety of factors, including the character’s personality traits, physical appearance, and experiences.

    Research has found that identification can be a powerful driver of emotional involvement in film. For example, a study by Cohen (2001) found that viewers who identified strongly with a character in a film reported greater emotional involvement with the story and were more likely to experience a range of emotions, including sadness, joy, and fear. Similarly, a study by Tukachinsky (2013) found that viewers who identified with the main character of a film were more likely to experience emotional involvement with the story and to report feeling a sense of personal growth or transformation as a result of their viewing experience.

    Themes and Emotional Involvement

    In addition to empathy and identification, the themes and messages of a film can also play a key role in emotional involvement. When a film addresses themes or messages that resonate with viewers on a personal level, they are more likely to become emotionally involved in the story and to experience a range of emotions in response.

    Research has shown that the themes and messages of a film can be a powerful driver of emotional involvement. For example, a study by Oliver and Bartsch (2010) found that viewers who watched a film that addressed the theme of forgiveness reported greater emotional involvement with the story and were more likely to experience a range of positive emotions, including happiness and hope. Similarly, a study by Knobloch, Zillmann, Dillman Carpentier, and Reimer (2003) found that viewers who watched a film that addressed the theme of social justice were more likely to experience a range of emotions, including anger and frustration, and were more likely to report feeling motivated to take action in their own lives.

    Conclusion

    Emotional involvement in film is a complex phenomenon that is driven by a variety of factors, including empathy with the characters, identification with their struggles, and the themes and messages.

    References:

    Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How does fiction reading influence empathy? An experimental investigation on the role of emotional transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341.

    Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass communication and society, 4(3), 245-264.

    Hanich, J., Wagner, V., Shah, M., Jacobsen, T., & Menninghaus, W. (2014). Why we love watching sad films: The pleasure of being moved in aesthetic experiences. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 8(2), 130-143.

    Knobloch, S., Zillmann, D., Dillman Carpentier, F. R., & Reimer, T. (2003). Effects of portrayals of social issues on viewers’ mood and behavioral intentions. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(2), 343-359.

    Oliver, M. B., & Bartsch, A. (2010). Appreciation as audience response: Exploring entertainment gratifications beyond hedonism. Human Communication Research, 36(1), 53-81.

    Tukachinsky, R. (2013). Narrative engagement: What makes people experience stories? In M. B. Oliver & A. A. Raney (Eds.), Media and social life (pp. 197-212). Routledge.

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  • Empathy in Media

    Empathy is a crucial component of human communication and interaction, and it plays a vital role in our ability to understand and connect with others. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the role of empathy in media, particularly in the ways that media can foster empathy and increase our understanding of others. This essay will explore the concept of empathy in media, the ways in which media can foster empathy, and the potential benefits of this increased empathy for individuals and society as a whole.

    Empathy in Media

    Empathy can be defined as the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person (Decety & Jackson, 2004). In media, empathy can take many forms, such as through fictional narratives, documentaries, news stories, and even social media. Media can foster empathy by presenting viewers with stories and characters that are relatable and that elicit an emotional response.

    One way that media can foster empathy is through the use of fictional narratives. Fictional narratives, such as novels, television shows, and films, allow viewers to experience the thoughts and feelings of characters and to see the world through their eyes. This can help viewers to understand the perspectives of others and to develop a greater sense of empathy for people who are different from themselves (Kuipers & Robinson, 2015).

    Documentaries and news stories can also be powerful tools for fostering empathy. These types of media often present viewers with real-world situations and events that are outside of their own experience. By presenting these situations in a way that is engaging and emotionally resonant, documentaries and news stories can help viewers to better understand the perspectives of others and to develop a greater sense of empathy for people who are different from themselves (Hansen & Machin, 2016).

    Social media is another powerful tool for fostering empathy. Social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter allow users to connect with people from all over the world and to share their own stories and experiences. By facilitating these connections and providing a platform for personal expression, social media can help users to better understand the perspectives of others and to develop a greater sense of empathy (Urist, 2016).

    Benefits of Empathy in Media

    The benefits of empathy in media are numerous, both for individuals and for society as a whole. At the individual level, increased empathy can lead to greater understanding and more positive relationships with others. It can also lead to a greater sense of emotional intelligence and self-awareness (Decety & Cowell, 2014).

    At the societal level, increased empathy can lead to a greater sense of social cohesion and a more just and equitable society. Empathy can help to reduce prejudice and discrimination and to promote greater understanding and acceptance of people from diverse backgrounds (Kuipers & Robinson, 2015). Additionally, empathy in media can help to raise awareness about important social issues and to inspire action and change.

    Conclusion

    Empathy is a vital component of human communication and interaction, and media has the power to foster empathy and increase our understanding of others. Through fictional narratives, documentaries, news stories, and social media, media can help us to better understand the perspectives of others and to develop a greater sense of empathy. The benefits of empathy in media are numerous, both for individuals and for society as a whole, and it is important that we continue to explore and promote empathy in media in order to create a more just and equitable world.

    References:

    Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2014). Friends or Foes: Is Empathy Necessary for Moral Behavior? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614543975

    Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534582304267187

    Hansen, A. K., & Machin, D. (2016). Documentaries and the cultivation of empathy. Communication Research, 43(7), 869–890. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215616588

    Kuipers, G., & Robinson, J. A. (2015). Stories and the promotion of empathy in a multicultural world. Social Science & Medicine, 146, 245–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.044

    Urist, J. (2016). The role of empathy in social media. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/11/the-role-of-empathy-in-social-media/507714/

  • The Power of Ambiguity: Exploring Empathy in Films with Ambiguous Protagonists”

    Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. In the context of film, empathy plays a crucial role in engaging the audience with the characters and the story. Ambiguous protagonists are characters that are difficult to classify as wholly good or bad, and their actions are open to interpretation. The portrayal of ambiguous protagonists in films can evoke complex emotions in the audience and challenge their ability to empathize with the character.

    Several studies have examined the relationship between empathy and films with ambiguous protagonists. A study by Bal and Veltkamp (2013) found that viewers of films with ambiguous characters reported higher levels of cognitive and emotional empathy compared to viewers of films with unambiguous characters. Another study by Vorderer, Klimmt, and Ritterfeld (2004) found that the ability to empathize with a character in a film was positively correlated with the enjoyment of the film.

    Films with ambiguous protagonists can also challenge the audience’s moral reasoning and perception of social norms. A study by Tamborini, Stiff, and Zillmann (1987) found that viewers of films with morally ambiguous characters had more diverse moral reactions compared to viewers of films with morally clear-cut characters. The study suggested that films with ambiguous characters could help promote moral reasoning and perspective-taking in the audience.

    One example of a film with an ambiguous protagonist is “Breaking Bad,” a TV series that follows the story of a high school chemistry teacher who turns to manufacturing and selling drugs to secure his family’s financial future after he is diagnosed with cancer. The main character, Walter White, is portrayed as both a sympathetic victim of circumstance and a ruthless drug lord. The audience’s empathy towards Walter White is challenged throughout the series as his actions become increasingly immoral and violent.

    Another example of a film with an ambiguous protagonist is “The Joker,” which follows the story of the iconic Batman villain. The film explores the character’s origins and portrays him as a victim of a society that has rejected him. The audience’s empathy towards the Joker is challenged as he descends into violence and chaos.

    In conclusion, films with ambiguous protagonists can challenge the audience’s ability to empathize with the character and their moral reasoning. However, studies suggest that the portrayal of ambiguous characters in films can promote cognitive and emotional empathy and lead to a more diverse range of moral reactions in the audience.

    References:

    Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How does fiction reading influence empathy? An experimental investigation on the role of emotional transportation. PloS one, 8(1), e55341.

    Tamborini, R., Stiff, J. B., & Zillmann, D. (1987). Moral judgments and crime drama: An integrated theory of enjoyment. Journal of communication, 37(3), 114-133.

    Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C., & Ritterfeld, U. (2004). Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertainment. Communication theory, 14(4), 388-408.

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  • The Uses and Gratification Theory

    The uses and gratification theory is a framework that seeks to explain why people use media and what they hope to gain from their media consumption. This theory suggests that individuals actively choose and use media to satisfy specific needs and desires. The theory highlights the role of the audience in interpreting and using media content, rather than viewing them as passive receivers of information.

    Several studies have used the uses and gratification theory to examine the motivations and preferences of media users. For example, a study by Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch (1974) identified four primary functions of media use: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity, and surveillance. The study found that individuals use media to escape from their everyday problems, maintain and enhance social relationships, reinforce their self-identity, and obtain information about the world.

    Another study by Ruggiero (2000) extended the uses and gratification theory to the internet and identified several motivations for internet use, including information seeking, entertainment, social interaction, and personal expression. The study found that individuals use the internet to connect with others, explore new ideas and experiences, and express themselves creatively.

    The uses and gratification theory has been applied to a range of media, including television, radio, newspapers, and social media. The theory has also been used to study the impact of media on social and political attitudes. A study by McLeod, Eveland, and Nathanson (1997) found that media use can affect individuals’ political knowledge, attitudes, and participation.

    In conclusion, the uses and gratification theory provides a useful framework for understanding why people use media and what they hope to gain from their media consumption. The theory highlights the role of the audience in shaping their media experiences and suggests that individuals actively choose and use media to satisfy specific needs and desires.

    References:

    Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, 19-32.

    McLeod, J. M., Eveland, W. P., & Nathanson, A. I. (1997). Support for political action: A test of a model of media use and political action. Communication Research, 24(2), 149-175.

    Ruggiero, T. E. (2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication & Society, 3(1), 3-37

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  • Concepts and Variables

    Concepts and variables are important components of scientific research (Trochim, 2006). Concepts refer to abstract or general ideas that describe or explain phenomena, while variables are measurable attributes or characteristics that can vary across individuals, groups, or situations. Concepts and variables are used to develop research questions, hypotheses, and operational definitions, and to design and analyze research studies. In this essay, I will discuss the concepts and variables that are commonly used in scientific research, with reference to relevant literature.

    One important concept in scientific research is validity, which refers to the extent to which a measure or test accurately reflects the concept or construct it is intended to measure (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). Validity can be assessed in different ways, including face validity, content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Face validity refers to the extent to which a measure appears to assess the concept it is intended to measure, while content validity refers to the degree to which a measure covers all the important dimensions of the concept. Criterion-related validity involves comparing a measure to an established standard or criterion, while construct validity involves testing the relationship between a measure and other related constructs.

    Another important concept in scientific research is reliability, which refers to the consistency and stability of a measure over time and across different contexts (Trochim, 2006). Reliability can be assessed in different ways, including test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability, and internal consistency. Test-retest reliability involves measuring the same individuals on the same measure at different times and examining the degree of consistency between the scores. Inter-rater reliability involves comparing the scores of different raters who are measuring the same variable. Internal consistency involves examining the extent to which different items on a measure are consistent with each other.

    Variables are another important component of scientific research (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002). Variables are classified into independent variables, dependent variables, and confounding variables. Independent variables are variables that are manipulated by the researcher in order to test their effects on the dependent variable. Dependent variables are variables that are measured by the researcher in order to assess the effects of the independent variable. Confounding variables are variables that may affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables and need to be controlled for in order to ensure accurate results.

    In summary, concepts and variables are important components of scientific research, providing a framework for developing research questions, hypotheses, and operational definitions, and designing and analyzing research studies. Validity and reliability are important concepts that help to ensure the accuracy and consistency of research measures, while independent, dependent, and confounding variables are important variables that help to assess the effects of different factors on outcomes. Understanding these concepts and variables is essential for conducting rigorous and effective scientific research.

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  • Immersiveness Measuring with Scales

    Immersiveness is a key aspect of film that refers to the degree to which viewers feel engaged and absorbed in the cinematic experience (Tamborini, Bowman, Eden, & Grizzard, 2010). Measuring immersiveness in film can be challenging, as it is a subjective experience that can vary across individuals and films (Calleja, 2014). In this discussion, I will explore some of the methods that have been used to measure immersiveness in film, with reference to relevant literature.

    One way to measure immersiveness in film is through the use of self-report measures, which ask viewers to rate their subjective experience of immersion. For example, Tamborini et al. (2010) developed a multidimensional scale of perceived immersive experience in film, which includes items related to spatial presence (e.g., “I felt like I was in the same physical space as the characters”), narrative transportation (e.g., “I was completely absorbed in the story”), and emotional involvement (e.g., “I felt emotionally connected to the characters”). Participants rate each item on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating greater levels of immersiveness. Other self-report measures of immersiveness include the Immersive Experience Questionnaire (Chen, Huang, & Huang, 2020) and the Immersion Questionnaire (Jennett et al., 2008).

    Another way to measure immersiveness in film is through the use of physiological measures, which assess changes in bodily responses associated with immersion. For example, Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is a measure of the electrical conductance of the skin that can indicate arousal and emotional responses (Kreibig, 2010). Heart Rate Variability (HRV) is another measure that can be used to assess physiological changes associated with immersion, as it reflects the variability in time between successive heartbeats, and is influenced by both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity (Laborde, Mosley, & Thayer, 2017).

    In addition to self-report and physiological measures, behavioral measures can also be used to assess immersiveness in film. For example, eye-tracking can be used to measure the extent to which viewers focus their attention on different elements of the film, such as the characters or the environment (Bulling et al., 2016). Eye-tracking data can also be used to infer cognitive processes associated with immersion, such as mental workload and engagement (Munoz-Montoya, Bohil, Di Stasi, & Gugerty, 2014).

    Overall, measuring immersiveness in film is a complex and multifaceted process that involves subjective, physiological, and behavioral components. Self-report measures are commonly used to assess viewers’ subjective experience of immersion, while physiological measures can provide objective indicators of bodily responses associated with immersion. Behavioral measures, such as eye-tracking, can provide insights into cognitive processes associated with immersion. Combining these different methods can help to provide a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of immersiveness in film.

    References

    Bulling, A., Mansfield, A., & Elsden, C. (2016). Eye tracking and the moving image. Springer.

    Calleja, G. (2014). In-game: From immersion to incorporation. MIT Press.

    Chen, Y.-W., Huang, Y.-J., & Huang, C.-H. (2020). The Immersive Experience Questionnaire: Scale development and validation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 25(1), 49-61.

    Jennett, C., Cox, A. L., Cairns, P., Dhoparee, S., Epps, A., Tijs, T., & Walton, A. (2008). Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66(9), 641-661.

    Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 394-421.

    Laborde, S., Mosley, E., & Thayer, J. F. (2017). Heart rate variability and cardiac vagal tone in psychophysiological research–recommendations for experiment planning, data analysis, and data reporting. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 213.

    Munoz-Montoya, F., Bohil, C. J., Di Stasi, L. L., & Gugerty, L. (2014). Using eye tracking to evaluate the cognitive workload of image processing in a simulated tactical environment. Displays, 35(3), 167-174.

    Tamborini, R., Bowman, N. D., Eden, A., & Grizzard, M. (2010). Organizing the perception of narrative events: Psychological need satisfaction and narrative immersion. In P. Vorderer, D. Friedrichsen, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 165-184). Routledge.

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  • Hypodermic Needle Theory

    The hypodermic needle theory, also known as the “magic bullet” or “direct effects” model, is a communication theory that suggests that media messages are directly and uniformly injected into the minds of audiences, resulting in a predictable and uniform response (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955). According to this theory, audiences are passive and easily influenced by media, and media content can have a direct and immediate impact on their thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors.

    The hypodermic needle theory emerged in the early 20th century, when mass media began to emerge as a powerful force in society. At that time, many researchers believed that media messages had a direct and powerful effect on audiences, and that these effects were largely negative (Lasswell, 1927). The theory was based on the assumption that people were unable to resist the persuasive power of media messages and were therefore vulnerable to manipulation.

    However, the hypodermic needle theory has been widely criticized for its oversimplification of the relationship between media and audiences. Many researchers argue that media effects are far more complex and are influenced by a variety of factors, including audience characteristics, media content, and social context (McQuail, 2010). They also suggest that audiences are not passive recipients of media messages, but rather active interpreters who engage with media content in different ways.

    Critics argue that the hypodermic needle theory overlooks the fact that audiences are not homogeneous and that different people respond to media messages in different ways. They also argue that media content is not always uniform and that different messages can have different effects on different people. In addition, critics argue that the theory ignores the role of other factors, such as social context and personal experience, in shaping media effects (Lull, 2000).

    Despite these criticisms, the hypodermic needle theory has had a lasting impact on the study of media effects and communication. It has inspired numerous studies of media effects, and has led to the development of more sophisticated models of media influence that take into account the complex interplay of audience, media, and social factors (McQuail, 2010).

    Some studies have found support for the hypodermic needle theory, particularly in the context of highly emotional or politically charged messages. For example, a study by Lazarsfeld and his colleagues during the 1940 presidential election found that radio broadcasts had a direct and immediate impact on the voting behavior of listeners (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944). However, more recent studies have found little support for the theory, and have instead emphasized the importance of individual and contextual factors in shaping media effects (Iyengar & Kinder, 2010).

    Contemporary research on media effects has focused on developing more nuanced models of media influence that take into account the complex interplay of individual, media, and social factors. For example, the cultivation theory suggests that media exposure can shape people’s perceptions of social reality over time, while the agenda-setting theory suggests that media can influence the importance that people attach to different issues (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorelli, 1980; McCombs & Shaw, 1972). These theories, along with many others, have expanded our understanding of media effects and challenged the oversimplified assumptions of the hypodermic needle theory.

    References

    Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorelli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30(3), 10-29.

    Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (2010). News that matters: Television and American opinion. University of Chicago Press.

    Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications. Transaction Publishers.

    Lasswell, H. D. (1927). The theory of propaganda. American Political Science Review, 21(3), 627-631.

    Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. Columbia University Press.

    Lull, J. (2000). Inside family viewing: Ethnographic research on television’s audiences. Routledge.

    McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.

    McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail’s mass communication theory. Sage Publications.

    Overall, these references provide a range of sources for further exploration of the hypodermic needle theory and its impact on the field of media studies.

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  • The Meaning Theory of Media Portrayal

    The meaning theory of media portrayal suggests that media messages are not simply neutral or objective descriptions of reality, but are constructed in a way that shapes how audiences interpret and understand the world around them. According to this theory, the meaning of media messages is not fixed or universal, but rather varies depending on the cultural, social, and historical context in which they are produced and received.

    One of the key insights of the meaning theory of media portrayal is that meaning is not simply inherent in the message itself, but is actively created by the audience through their interpretation of the message. This means that media messages are not simply received passively by audiences, but are actively engaged with and interpreted by them. As such, the meaning of a media message is shaped by the audience’s own experiences, beliefs, and values, as well as by the cultural and social context in which the message is received.

    This theory has been applied to various forms of media, including television news, advertising, and popular culture. For example, researchers have found that television news often frames social issues in a way that emphasizes conflict and drama, and may oversimplify or distort the issue (Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). This framing can shape the audience’s perception of the issue and influence their attitudes and beliefs about it.

    Similarly, advertisements often use cultural symbols, such as images of family and home, to construct meaning and create a connection with the audience (Klein, 2000). These symbols are often used to sell products that are associated with these values, such as cleaning products or household appliances.

    The meaning theory of media portrayal has important implications for understanding the influence of media on society. By recognizing that media messages are not simply objective descriptions of reality, but are actively constructed and interpreted, it becomes possible to critically examine the role of media in shaping attitudes and beliefs, and to develop strategies for media literacy and critical consumption of media.

    Overall, the meaning theory of media portrayal provides a valuable framework for understanding the complex and multifaceted ways in which media shapes our understanding of the world.

    References

    • Gamson, W. A., & Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach. American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), 1-37.
    • Klein, N. (2000). No Logo: Taking aim at the brand bullies. Picador.
    • Hall, S. (1980). Encoding and decoding in the television discourse. In S. Hall, D. Hobson, A. Lowe, & P. Willis (Eds.), Culture, media, language (pp. 128-138). Routledge.
    • Ang, I. (1991). Desperately seeking the audience. Routledge.
    • Stuart Hall (1973) Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse, Communication Theory, 3:3, 171-192,
    • Fiske, J. (1989). Understanding popular culture. Routledge.
    • Van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Elite discourse and the reproduction of racism. In C. R. Caldas-Coulthard & M. Coulthard (Eds.), Texts and practices: Readings in critical discourse analysis (pp. 141-156). Routledge.
    • Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. University of Chicago Press.
    • Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. Edward Arnold.
    • Gitlin, T. (1980). The whole world is watching: Mass media in the making and unmaking of the New Left. University of California Press.
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  • The Two-Step Flow Theory

    The Two-Step Flow theory is a communication model that suggests that information flows through opinion leaders, who are influential people with a great deal of knowledge or interest in a particular topic (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1948). These opinion leaders receive information from the media and then pass it on to their followers or peers, who are less knowledgeable or interested in the topic. This theory challenges the traditional notion of a one-way communication flow, where the media directly influences the opinions of the masses.

    According to the theory, individuals are more likely to be influenced by their peers and opinion leaders than by the media alone. Several studies have provided empirical support for the Two-Step Flow theory. For example, in their study of the 1940 US presidential election, Lazarsfeld and his colleagues found that voters were more likely to be influenced by their social networks than by the media (Lazarsfeld et al., 1948). Another study by Katz and Lazarsfeld in 1955 showed that people were more likely to be influenced by interpersonal communication than by the media in their voting decisions (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955).

    However, some scholars have criticized the Two-Step Flow theory for oversimplifying the complex nature of social interactions and the role of media in shaping public opinion. For instance, some argue that the theory ignores the power dynamics of social relationships and fails to account for the diverse range of opinions within a social network. Moreover, the theory assumes that opinion leaders are unbiased and rational actors, which may not always be the case in reality (Chaffee & Miike, 2013).

    Despite these criticisms, the Two-Step Flow theory has been influential in media studies, providing a new perspective on how media messages are disseminated and interpreted. By understanding the role of opinion leaders in the flow of information, media professionals can better tailor their messages to target these influential individuals, who can in turn shape the opinions of the wider public.

    In conclusion, the Two-Step Flow theory has been influential in media studies, providing a new perspective on how media messages are disseminated and interpreted. However, it is not without its limitations and has been the subject of ongoing debate among scholars.

    References:

    Chaffee, S. H., & Miike, Y. (2013). Interpersonal communication: A reader. Peter Lang.

    Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications. Free Press.

    Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The People’s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign. Columbia University Press.

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  • Agenda-setting Theory

    Agenda-setting theory is a communication theory that posits that the media can influence the public’s perception of the importance of issues by highlighting some issues while ignoring others. The theory suggests that media coverage does not tell people what to think but instead tells them what to think about (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

    The theory was first introduced in the seminal study by McCombs and Shaw (1972), who investigated the impact of media coverage on the 1968 presidential election in the United States. Their study found that the issues that the media covered the most became the most important issues for voters.

    Since then, the agenda-setting theory has been expanded and refined by various scholars, and it has been applied to a wide range of media contexts. One of the most important contributions to the theory was the meta-analysis conducted by Weaver (1997), which reviewed 37 studies on agenda-setting and found strong evidence for the theory’s main proposition that the media influences the salience of issues in the public’s mind.

    In recent years, several studies have examined the role of social media in the agenda-setting process. For instance, Tsfati and Shenhav (2012) found that social media can play an important role in shaping public opinion by amplifying the importance of certain issues and increasing their visibility.

    In conclusion, the agenda-setting theory has been a key concept in media studies for several decades, and it has significantly influenced our understanding of how media coverage affects public opinion. By selecting which issues to cover and how to cover them, the media can set the public agenda and influence what issues the public thinks are most important.

    References:

    McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.

    Tsfati, Y., & Shenhav, S. R. (2012). The impact of social network sites on the agenda-setting theory. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(4), 467-482.

    Weaver, D. H. (1997). The impact of agenda-setting research. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74(4), 703-727

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