Categorie: Theories

Parasocial interactions refer to the psychological connections individuals form with media figures, such as celebrities, characters in films or TV shows, and social media influencers. These connections can be characterized by feelings of intimacy, attachment, and identification, despite the absence of any real-world interaction. Parasocial interactions have been studied extensively in media studies and psychology, and they have important implications for media students as both consumers and creators of media content.

One of the key theoretical frameworks for understanding parasocial interactions is the uses and gratifications theory, which posits that individuals consume media to satisfy their particular needs and desires (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973). In the context of parasocial interactions, individuals may form connections with media figures to fulfill their need for social interaction, companionship, or escapism (Horton & Wohl, 1956). These connections can also provide individuals with a sense of belonging, identity, and self-esteem (Cohen, 2003).

Parasocial interactions are not limited to traditional media, but have become increasingly common with the rise of social media influencers. Social media platforms allow individuals to interact with influencers on a more personal level, such as through direct messaging or comments, and to feel as if they have a more intimate relationship with them (Bridgman, 2020). These interactions can be particularly powerful, as they blur the line between celebrity and ordinary individuals, making the connection feel more authentic and personal (Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015).

While parasocial interactions can be positive and fulfilling, they can also have negative consequences. One criticism of parasocial interactions is that they can lead to unrealistic expectations and harmful comparisons. For example, individuals may compare their own lives to the idealized versions presented by media figures, leading to feelings of inadequacy or low self-esteem (Perloff, 2014). Additionally, parasocial interactions can create a sense of dependency or obsession, leading to feelings of distress when the connection is broken (Rubin, Perse, & Powell, 1985).

Another criticism of parasocial interactions is that they can be exploitative, particularly in the context of social media influencers. Influencers may use their connections with followers to promote products or engage in other commercial activities, without disclosing their financial interests (Achrol & Kotler, 2012). This can lead to individuals feeling manipulated or used, and can erode the trust and authenticity of the connection.

For media students, an understanding of parasocial interactions is important both as consumers and creators of media content. As consumers, media students should be aware of the potential negative consequences of parasocial interactions, such as unrealistic expectations or harmful comparisons, and should be mindful of their own emotional investments in media figures. As creators, media students should be aware of the power of parasocial interactions in engaging audiences and should strive to create content that is authentic and transparent, rather than exploitative.

In conclusion, parasocial interactions are a complex and important aspect of media consumption and creation. While they can provide individuals with a sense of intimacy and connection, they can also have negative consequences and should be approached with caution. Media students should be aware of the potential risks and benefits of parasocial interactions, and should strive to create and consume media content that is both engaging and ethical.

References

Achrol, R. S., & Kotler, P. (2012). Frontiers of the marketing paradigm in the third millennium. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 35-52.

Bridgman, A. (2020). Parasocial interaction with Instagram influencers: An exploratory study. Young Consumers, 21(1), 1-16.

Cohen, J. (2003). Parasocial break-up from favorite television characters: The role of attachment styles and relationship intensity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20(2), 187-202.

Horton, D., & Wohl, R. R. (1956). Mass communication and para-social interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry, 19(3), 215-229.

Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.

Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.

Rubin, A. M., Perse, E. M., & Powell, R. A. (1985). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Human Communication Research, 12(2), 155-180.

Tandoc, E. C., Ferrucci, P., & Duffy, M. (2015). Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students: Is Facebooking depressing? Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 139-146

The Entertainment Model is a theory that explains how media content is created to entertain and engage audiences, rather than to inform or educate. This model is widely used in media studies and has been the subject of both praise and criticism. In this essay, we will discuss the Entertainment Model, its criticisms, and provide relevant citations and references.

The Entertainment Model suggests that media content is primarily created to attract and retain audiences. This model is often used in the entertainment industry, including television shows, movies, music, and video games. Proponents of this theory argue that the primary goal of media producers is to create content that is engaging and enjoyable for viewers or listeners. According to this theory, the content of the media does not have to be informative or educational to be successful.

Critics of the Entertainment Model argue that it encourages the production of shallow, meaningless content that is focused solely on profit, rather than on the needs and interests of the audience. Some critics also argue that the model can lead to the creation of content that is inappropriate or offensive, as producers may be more concerned with gaining attention and boosting their ratings or revenue than with producing high-quality content.

One example of the Entertainment Model in action is the reality television genre, which often focuses on entertaining viewers with drama, conflict, and spectacle, rather than providing any meaningful educational or informative content. Proponents of the Entertainment Model might argue that these shows are popular precisely because they provide an engaging form of entertainment that many viewers enjoy.

However, critics of the Entertainment Model argue that reality television can be harmful, as it often portrays negative stereotypes and reinforces harmful social attitudes. For example, reality TV shows that focus on romantic relationships may promote unrealistic and unhealthy relationship dynamics, while shows that focus on competitions or survival may promote an unhealthy focus on winning at all costs.

In conclusion, while the Entertainment Model has its supporters, it also has its critics. Critics argue that the model encourages the production of shallow, meaningless content, while supporters argue that it simply reflects the interests and desires of audiences. Ultimately, whether or not the Entertainment Model is a valid and useful framework for media studies is a matter of ongoing debate and discussion.

References:

Gripsrud, J. (2000). The Dynasty Years: Hollywood Television and Critical Media Studies. Routledge.

Livingstone, S. (2009). On the mediation of everything: ICA presidential address 2008. Journal of communication, 59(1), 1-18.

Miller, T., & McAllister, M. P. (2001). Digital content and the cultural industries. Information Society, 17(3), 147-158.

Turow, J. (2011). The entertainment divide: how the media shape our perceptions of reality. Oxford University Press

Suspension of disbelief is a term used to describe the willingness of an audience to accept the unrealistic or fantastical elements of a story in order to fully engage with and enjoy a work of fiction. This concept is particularly relevant to media students, who must be able to understand how an audience interacts with different forms of media and how the medium itself can impact their ability to suspend disbelief.

One of the earliest discussions of suspension of disbelief can be found in the work of philosopher and literary critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In his 1817 Biographia Literaria, Coleridge explains that, in order to fully enjoy a work of fiction, the reader must “suppose the story to be true, at least while he is reading.” In other words, the reader must be willing to set aside their disbelief in order to fully engage with the story.

In more recent years, media scholars have continued to explore the concept of suspension of disbelief. For example, in his 1986 book Textual Poachers, Henry Jenkins argues that fan communities often rely on suspension of disbelief in order to fully immerse themselves in their chosen fandom. Similarly, media scholar Marsha Kinder discusses the role of immersion and identification in her 1991 book Playing with Power, arguing that “the key to media consumption is a kind of active engagement that involves the audience in the process of suspending disbelief.”

However, not all scholars are convinced of the value of suspension of disbelief. In his 2006 book The Reality Effect, media scholar Joel Black argues that the concept is ultimately limiting, as it assumes that audiences are simply passive recipients of media rather than active interpreters. Black suggests that a more productive approach to understanding audience engagement with media would be to focus on the ways in which audiences actively negotiate their relationship to the text, rather than simply “suspending disbelief.”

Escapism, defined as the tendency of individuals to seek out entertainment and distraction from the stresses and challenges of everyday life, can be found in various forms of media content, such as books, films, TV shows, and video games (Kahn, Shen, & Lu, 2013). For example, J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series provides readers with a fantastical world filled with magic and adventure, while J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy offers a world of heroes and villains that is far removed from the mundane realities of daily life. In video games, players can immerse themselves in virtual worlds, such as Minecraft, where they can build and explore without the constraints of the real world.

While escapism can provide individuals with a sense of relaxation and relief, it can also have negative effects. One criticism of escapism is that it can be a form of avoidance behavior, whereby individuals use media content to escape from their problems rather than confronting them directly (Rubin, 2002). This can result in a lack of productivity and avoidance of real-life responsibilities. Another criticism of escapism is that it can create unrealistic expectations and a false sense of reality. For instance, some individuals may come to expect the same level of excitement and adventure in their real lives that they experience in the media they consume, which can lead to dissatisfaction and disappointment with their real-life experiences (Zillmann, 2000).

Despite these criticisms, escapism can have positive effects on individuals. It can provide a form of mental relaxation and reduce stress levels (Kahn, Shen, & Lu, 2013). It can also foster a sense of community among individuals who share a love for a particular book, film, or video game.

In conclusion, while escapism in media content can provide individuals with a sense of relief and comfort from the pressures of everyday life, it is important to be aware of its potential negative effects, such as avoidance behavior and unrealistic expectations (Rubin, 2002). Individuals should strive to find a balance between their media consumption and real-life responsibilities.

References:

Kahn, A. S., Shen, C., & Lu, L. (2013). Effects of social media use on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(6), 370-377.

Rubin, A. M. (2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective of media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525-548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Zillmann, D. (2000). Influence of unrestrained access to erotica on adolescents’ and young adults’ dispositions toward sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27(2), 41-44

Suspense is a powerful emotional reaction that media students should be familiar with. It is a feeling of uncertainty, anticipation, and tension that builds up as the audience waits for the outcome of an event. According to Gerrig and Zimbardo (2018), “suspense is a cognitive and emotional experience that arises from the audience’s awareness of an impending outcome that is uncertain and potentially significant” (p. 278).

Suspense is often used in films, television shows, and literature to engage the audience and create a sense of excitement. It can be created through various techniques, such as music, camera angles, and pacing. For example, in Alfred Hitchcock’s film “Psycho,” the famous shower scene is shot in quick, jarring cuts that create a sense of chaos and uncertainty, which heightens the suspense.

In addition, suspense can be enhanced by the use of foreshadowing. Foreshadowing is a technique that hints at future events, which can increase the audience’s anticipation and sense of unease. For example, in the television series “Breaking Bad,” there are numerous instances of foreshadowing, such as the use of the color green to symbolize death, which creates a sense of dread and anticipation in the audience.

Suspense is an effective tool for media creators because it keeps the audience engaged and interested in the story. It can also elicit a strong emotional response from the audience, as they become invested in the outcome of the story. As Gerrig and Zimbardo (2018) note, “suspenseful stories tap into deep-seated human needs for arousal, uncertainty, and social connection, and they can provide a powerful emotional experience that leaves a lasting impression on the viewer or reader” (p. 279).

In conclusion, suspense is an important emotional reaction for media students to understand. It is a feeling of uncertainty, anticipation, and tension that is created through various techniques, such as music, camera angles, pacing, and foreshadowing. Suspense is an effective tool for media creators to engage and emotionally connect with their audiences, and it can leave a lasting impression on the viewer or reader.

References:

Gerrig, R., & Zimbardo, P. (2018). Psychology and life (21st ed.). Pearson.