A research report is a structured document that presents the findings of a study or investigation. It typically consists of several key parts, each serving a specific purpose in communicating the research process and results.
The report begins with a title page, which includes the title of the research, author’s name, and institutional affiliation. Following this is an abstract, a concise summary of the entire paper, highlighting the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. This provides readers with a quick overview of the study’s significance.
The introduction serves as the foundation of the report, presenting the research problem or question, providing relevant background information, and establishing the study’s purpose and significance. It often concludes with a clear thesis statement or research objective.
A literature review typically follows, surveying and evaluating existing research related to the topic. This section helps contextualize the current study within the existing body of knowledge and identifies gaps or areas for further investigation.
The methodology section is crucial, as it explains the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques used in the study. It should provide sufficient detail to allow others to replicate the study if desired.
The results section presents the findings of the study, often through text, tables, or figures. It should be objective and organized logically, highlighting key findings and supporting them with appropriate evidence.
The discussion section interprets and analyzes the results, relating them to the research objectives and previous literature. It explores the implications, limitations, and potential future directions of the study.
The conclusion summarizes the main points of the research paper, restates the thesis or research objective, and discusses the overall significance of the findings[4]. It should leave the reader with a clear understanding of the study’s contributions[4].
Finally, the report includes a references section, listing all sources cited in the research paper using a specific citation style. This is essential for acknowledging and giving credit to the works of others.
Some research reports may also include additional sections such as recommendations, which suggest actions based on the findings, and appendices, which provide supplementary information that supports the main text.
In the field of media studies, understanding and reporting statistical significance is crucial for interpreting research findings accurately. Chapter 17 of “Introduction to Statistics in Psychology” by Howitt and Cramer provides valuable insights into the concise reporting of significance levels, a skill essential for media students (Howitt & Cramer, 2020). This essay will delve into the key concepts from this chapter, offering practical advice for first-year media students. Additionally, it will incorporate relevant discussions from Chapter 13 on related t-tests and other statistical tests such as the Chi-Square test.
Importance of Concise Reporting
Concise reporting of statistical significance is vital in media research because it ensures that findings are communicated clearly and effectively. Statistical tests like the Chi-Square test help determine the probability of observing results by chance, which is a fundamental aspect of media research (Howitt & Cramer, 2020). Media professionals often need to convey complex statistical information to audiences who may not have a statistical background. Therefore, reports should prioritize brevity and clarity over detailed explanations found in academic textbooks (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020).
Essential Elements of a Significance Report
Chapter 17 emphasizes several critical components that should be included when reporting statistical significance:
The Statistical Test: Clearly identify the test used, such as t-test, Chi-Square, or ANOVA, using appropriate symbols like t, χ², or F. This allows readers to understand the type of analysis performed (Howitt & Cramer, 2020).
Degrees of Freedom (df) or Sample Size (N): Report these values as they influence result interpretation. For example, t(49) or χ²(2, N = 119) (APA, 2020).
The Statistic Value: Provide the calculated value of the test statistic rounded to two decimal places (e.g., t = 2.96) (Howitt & Cramer, 2020).
The Probability Level (p-value): Report the p-value to indicate the probability of obtaining observed results if there were no real effect. Use symbols like “<” or “=” to denote significance levels (e.g., p < 0.05) (APA, 2020).
One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Test: Specify if a one-tailed test was used as it is only appropriate under certain conditions; two-tailed tests are more common (Howitt & Cramer, 2020).
Evolving Styles and APA Standards
Reporting styles for statistical significance have evolved significantly over time. The APA Publication Manual provides guidelines that are widely adopted in media and communication research to ensure clarity and professionalism (APA, 2020).
APA-Recommended Style:
Place details of the statistical test outside parentheses after a comma (e.g., t(49) = 2.96, p < .001).
Use parentheses only for degrees of freedom.
Report exact p-values to three decimal places when available.
Consider reporting effect sizes for a standardized measure of effect magnitude (APA, 2020).
Practical Tips for Media Students
Consistency: Maintain a consistent style throughout your work.
Focus on Clarity: Use straightforward language that is easily understood by your audience.
Consult Guidelines: Refer to specific journal or institutional guidelines for reporting statistical findings.
Software Output: Familiarize yourself with statistical software outputs like SPSS for APA-style reporting.
References
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Howitt, D., & Cramer, D. (2020). Introduction to statistics in psychology. Pearson Education Limited.
Drawing strong conclusions in social research is a crucial skill for first-year students to master. Matthews and Ross (2010) emphasize that a robust conclusion goes beyond merely summarizing findings, instead addressing the critical “So What?” question by elucidating the broader implications of the research within the social context.
Key Elements of a Strong Conclusion
A well-crafted conclusion typically includes several essential components:
Concise summary of the research process and methods
Restatement of research questions or hypotheses
Clear presentation of answers to research questions or hypothesis outcomes
Explanation of findings and their connection to research questions
Relation of findings to existing literature
Identification of new knowledge or understanding generated
Acknowledgment of research limitations
Reflection on the research process
Personal reflection on the research experience (when appropriate)
Avoiding Common Pitfalls
Matthews and Ross (2010) caution against two frequent errors in conclusion writing:
Inappropriate Generalization: Researchers should avoid extending findings beyond the scope of their sample, recognizing limitations of small sample sizes.
Introducing New Material: The conclusion should synthesize existing information rather than present new data or arguments.
The Importance of Context
Bryman (2016) adds that a strong conclusion should situate the research findings within the broader theoretical and practical context of the field. This contextualization helps readers understand the significance of the research and its potential impact on future studies or real-world applications.
Reflecting on the Research Process
Creswell and Creswell (2018) emphasize the importance of critical reflection in the conclusion. They suggest that researchers should evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of their methodology, considering how these factors may have influenced the results and what improvements could be made in future studies.
In conclusion, crafting a strong conclusion is a vital skill for first-year social science students. By addressing the “So What?” question, synthesizing findings, and reflecting on the research process, students can demonstrate a deep understanding of their work and its broader implications in the social world.
References:
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
Matthews, B., & Ross, L. (2010). Research methods: A practical guide for the social sciences. Pearson Education.
You may read this TIP Sheet from start to finish before you begin your paper, or skip to the steps that are causing you the most grief.
1. Choosing a topic: Interest, information, and focus Your job will be more pleasant, and you will be more apt to retain information if you choose a topic that holds your interest. Even if a general topic is assigned (“Write about impacts of GMO crops on world food supply”), as much as possible find an approach that suits your interests. Your topic should be one on which you can find adequate information; you might need to do some preliminary research to determine this. Go to the Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature in the reference section of the library, or to an electronic database such as Proquest or Wilson Web, and search for your topic. The Butte College Library Reference Librarians are more than happy to assist you at this (or any) stage of your research. Scan the results to see how much information has been published. Then, narrow your topic to manageable size:
Too Broad: Childhood diseases
Too Broad: Eating disorders
Focused: Juvenile Diabetes
Focused: Anorexia Nervosa
Once you have decided on a topic and determined that enough information is available, you are ready to proceed. At this point, however, if you are having difficulty finding adequate quality information, stop wasting your time; find another topic.
2. Preliminary reading & recordkeeping Gather some index cards or a small notebook and keep them with you as you read. First read a general article on your topic, for example from an encyclopedia. On an index card or in the notebook, record the author, article and/or book title, and all publication information in the correct format (MLA or APA, for example) specified by your instructor. (If you need to know what publication information is needed for the various types of sources, see a writing guide such as SF Writer.) On the index cards or in your notebook, write down information you want to use from each identified source, including page numbers. Use quotation marks on anything you copy exactly, so you can distinguish later between exact quotes and paraphrasing. (You will still attribute information you have quoted or paraphrased.)
Some students use a particular index card method throughout the process of researching and writing that allows them great flexibility in organizing and re-organizing as well as in keeping track of sources; others color-code or otherwise identify groups of facts. Use any method that works for you in later drafting your paper, but always start with good recordkeeping.
3. Organizing: Mind map or outline Based on your preliminary reading, draw up a working mind map or outline. Include any important, interesting, or provocative points, including your own ideas about the topic. A mind map is less linear and may even include questions you want to find answers to. Use the method that works best for you. The object is simply to group ideas in logically related groups. You may revise this mind map or outline at any time; it is much easier to reorganize a paper by crossing out or adding sections to a mind map or outline than it is to laboriously start over with the writing itself.
4. Formulating a thesis: Focus and craftsmanship Write a well defined, focused, three- to five-point thesis statement, but be prepared to revise it later if necessary. Take your time crafting this statement into one or two sentences, for it will control the direction and development of your entire paper.
For more on developing thesis statements, see the TIP Sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.”
5. Researching: Facts and examples Now begin your heavy-duty research. Try the internet, electronic databases, reference books, newspaper articles, and books for a balance of sources. For each source, write down on an index card (or on a separate page of your notebook) the publication information you will need for your works cited (MLA) or bibliography (APA) page. Write important points, details, and examples, always distinguishing between direct quotes and paraphrasing. As you read, remember that an expert opinion is more valid than a general opinion, and for some topics (in science and history, for example), more recent research may be more valuable than older research. Avoid relying too heavily on internet sources, which vary widely in quality and authority and sometimes even disappear before you can complete your paper.
Never copy-and-paste from internet sources directly into any actual draft of your paper. For more information on plagiarism, obtain from the Butte College Student Services office a copy of the college’s policy on plagiarism, or attend the Critical Skills Plagiarism Workshop given each semester.
6. Rethinking: Matching mind map and thesis After you have read deeply and gathered plenty of information, expand or revise your working mind map or outline by adding information, explanations, and examples. Aim for balance in developing each of your main points (they should be spelled out in your thesis statement). Return to the library for additional information if it is needed to evenly develop these points, or revise your thesis statement to better reflect what you have learned or the direction your paper seems to have taken.
7. Drafting: Beginning in the middle Write the body of the paper, starting with the thesis statement and omitting for now the introduction (unless you already know exactly how to begin, but few writers do). Use supporting detail to logically and systematically validate your thesis statement. For now, omit the conclusion also.
For more on systematically developing a thesis statement, see TIP sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.”
8. Revising: Organization and attribution Read, revise, and make sure that your ideas are clearly organized and that they support your thesis statement. Every single paragraph should have a single topic that is derived from the thesis statement. If any paragraph does not, take it out, or revise your thesis if you think it is warranted. Check that you have quoted and paraphrased accurately, and that you have acknowledged your sources even for your paraphrasing. Every single idea that did not come to you as a personal epiphany or as a result of your own methodical reasoning should be attributed to its owner.
For more on writing papers that stay on-topic, see the TIP Sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.” For more on avoiding plagiarism, see the Butte College Student Services brochure, “Academic Honesty at Butte College,” or attend the Critical Skills Plagiarism Workshop given each semester.
9. Writing: Intro, conclusion, and citations Write the final draft. Add a one-paragraph introduction and a one-paragraph conclusion. Usually the thesis statement appears as the last sentence or two of the first, introductory paragraph. Make sure all citations appear in the correct format for the style (MLA, APA) you are using. The conclusion should not simply restate your thesis, but should refer to it. (For more on writing conclusions, see the TIP Sheet “How to Structure an Essay.”) Add a Works Cited (for MLA) or Bibliography (for APA) page.
10. Proofreading: Time and objectivity Time permitting, allow a few days to elapse between the time you finish writing your last draft and the time you begin to make final corrections. This “time out” will make you more perceptive, more objective, and more critical. On your final read, check for grammar, punctuation, correct word choice, adequate and smooth transitions, sentence structure, and sentence variety. For further proofreading strategies, see the TIP Sheet “Revising, Editing, and Proofreading.”
APA 7 style is a comprehensive formatting and citation system widely used in academic and professional writing. This essay will cover key aspects of APA 7, including in-text referencing, reference list formatting, and reporting statistical results, tables, and figures.
In-Text Referencing
In-text citations in APA 7 style provide brief information about the source directly in the text. The basic format includes the author’s last name and the year of publication. For example:
One author: (Smith, 2020)
Two authors: (Smith & Jones, 2020)
Three or more authors: (Smith et al., 2020)
When quoting directly, include the page number: (Smith, 2020, p. 25).
Reference List
The reference list appears at the end of the paper on a new page. Key formatting rules include:
Double-space all entries
Use a hanging indent for each entry
Alphabetize entries by the first author’s last name
Example reference list entry for a journal article:
Smith, J. D., & Jones, A. B. (2020). Title of the article. Journal Name, 34, 123-145. https://doi.org/10.1234/example
Reporting Statistical Results
When reporting statistical results in APA 7 style:
Use italics for statistical symbols (e.g., M, SD, t, F, p)
Report exact p values to two or three decimal places
Use APA-approved abbreviations for statistical terms
Example: The results were statistically significant (t(34) = 2.45, p = .019).