Onderzoeksmethoden Research Methods

Tag: Research Design

  • Cultivation Theory

    Cultivation theory is a theoretical framework in the field of media studies that explains how long-term exposure to media can shape people’s perceptions of reality. According to this theory, the more an individual is exposed to media content, the more their perceptions of reality become shaped by the media, resulting in the cultivation of shared beliefs and attitudes among heavy media users.

    The theory has been widely studied and applied in the field of media studies. For example, a study by Gross and colleagues (2004) investigated the impact of television on people’s perceptions of crime. The study found that heavy viewers of crime dramas were more likely to overestimate the prevalence of crime in society and to have a more negative view of the police than light viewers. The study provided evidence for the impact of media exposure on people’s perceptions of reality, as predicted by cultivation theory.

    Another study that has applied cultivation theory to the analysis of media effects on young people is the study by Lee and colleagues (2014). The study investigated the impact of media exposure on young people’s attitudes towards appearance and body image. The results of the study showed that heavy users of social media and television were more likely to have negative attitudes towards their own bodies and to compare themselves unfavorably to others. The study supported the idea that media exposure can shape attitudes and beliefs over time, as predicted by cultivation theory.

    Critics of cultivation theory have argued that the theory may overestimate the impact of media on individuals and underestimate the role of other factors, such as socialization and personal experiences. Furthermore, some critics contend that cultivation theory tends to focus on the effects of media on particular groups of people, such as heavy viewers of violent content, rather than on the wider population.

    Despite these criticisms, cultivation theory remains a useful framework for analyzing media effects on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. One way that cultivation theory has been refined is through the concept of “cultural indicators”, which refers to the recurring themes and messages in media content that can shape people’s perceptions of reality (Gerbner, 1969).

    In conclusion, cultivation theory is a valuable theoretical framework that has been used to explain the impact of media on people’s perceptions of reality over time. While the theory has been criticized for its focus on particular groups and its potential to overestimate the impact of media, it remains a useful tool for analyzing media effects on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

    Reference

    Gerbner, G. (1969). Toward “cultural indicators”: The analysis of mass mediated public message systems. AV Communication Review, 17(2), 137-148.

    Gross, K., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (2004). “You’re it”: Reality TV, cruelty, and privacy. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(3), 387-402.

    Lee, M., Lee, H., & Moon, S. I. (2014). Social media, body image, and self-esteem: A study of predictors and moderators among young women. Journal of Health Communication, 19(10), 1138-1153.

    Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337-355.

    Shrum, L. J. (2012). The psychology of entertainment media: Blurring the lines between entertainment and persuasion. Routledge.

    Signorielli, N. (2014). Cultivation theory. The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies, 1-12.

    Tukachinsky, R., Slater, M. D., & Choi, Y. H. (2016). The role of media exposure in agenda setting: A longitudinal study. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 93(1), 39-60.

    , , ,

  • Reinforcement Theory

    Reinforcement theory is a well-established psychological theory that has been applied in various areas of media studies, such as advertising, social media, and video games (Chen & Wang, 2017; Hsu & Lu, 2017). The theory suggests that behavior can be modified through the use of positive or negative reinforcement, and that behavior is shaped by the consequences that follow it (Skinner, 1953).

    One of the strengths of the reinforcement theory is its ability to explain how media can shape user behavior. For instance, in the context of social media, positive reinforcement in the form of likes and comments can encourage users to engage more with the platform, while negative reinforcement, such as social exclusion, can lead to decreased engagement (Chen & Wang, 2017). Similarly, in video games, positive reinforcement in the form of virtual rewards or leveling up can increase player motivation and engagement (Hsu & Lu, 2017).

    However, some critics have argued that the reinforcement theory has limitations and may not fully explain the complex ways in which media shapes behavior. One of the criticisms is that the theory oversimplifies the role of rewards and punishments in behavior. While positive and negative reinforcement can influence behavior, they may not be the only factors at play. Other factors, such as cognitive processes, social norms, and personal values, may also play a role in shaping behavior (Bandura, 1986).

    Another criticism of the reinforcement theory is that it may not take into account the context in which behavior occurs. For instance, in the context of social media, the meaning and significance of likes and comments may vary depending on the user’s social network and cultural background (boyd, 2011). Similarly, in video games, the motivation and engagement of players may be influenced by factors such as game design, narrative, and social interactions with other players (Ryan et al., 2006).

    In conclusion, while the reinforcement theory has been a useful framework for understanding how media shapes behavior, it is not without its limitations. Critics have argued that the theory may oversimplify the role of rewards and punishments in behavior, and may not fully take into account the complexity of media use in different contexts. Therefore, researchers and media practitioners should be cautious in applying the theory and should consider other factors that may influence behavior.

    References:

    Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.

    boyd, d. (2011). Social network sites as networked publics: Affordances, dynamics, and implications. In Z. Papacharissi (Ed.), A networked self: Identity, community, and culture on social network sites (pp. 39–58). Routledge.

    Chen, Y., & Wang, C. (2017). The role of reinforcement in online social networks. Information Systems Research, 28(3), 631-651. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2017.0715

    Hsu, C. L., & Lu, H. P. (2017). The effect of positive and negative reinforcement on player motivation in online games. Computers in Human Behavior, 73, 541-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.057

    Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30(4), 344-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s

    , , ,

  • Cognitive Dissonance Theory

    Cognitive dissonance theory has been a widely studied topic in the field of social psychology and media studies, as it provides a framework for understanding how individuals deal with conflicting beliefs, values, or ideas. While the theory has been useful in explaining many phenomena related to persuasion and attitude change, it has also faced criticism and limitations.

    One criticism of cognitive dissonance theory is that it is too simplistic and does not account for individual differences and contextual factors that may affect how people experience cognitive dissonance. For example, some research has suggested that people who are more confident in their beliefs may experience less cognitive dissonance when confronted with conflicting information (Mills & Jellison, 2005). Similarly, contextual factors such as the source of the information or the level of involvement in the issue may also affect the degree of cognitive dissonance experienced by individuals (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

    Another limitation of cognitive dissonance theory is that it has been criticized for its lack of specificity and testability. While the theory posits that cognitive dissonance arises from the discomfort of holding conflicting beliefs, it does not provide a clear explanation of the cognitive processes involved or the conditions under which cognitive dissonance will occur (Cooper, 2007). Furthermore, some researchers have suggested that cognitive dissonance may not always lead to attitude change or behavior modification, as other factors such as social norms and self-identity may also play a role (Abelson, 1959).

    Despite these criticisms, cognitive dissonance theory remains a valuable framework for understanding the mechanisms of persuasion and attitude change in media. For example, research has shown that cognitive dissonance can be a useful tool in promoting behavior change in health communication campaigns (Miller & Prentice, 2016). By understanding the factors that contribute to cognitive dissonance and the strategies that can be used to reduce it, media producers can create more effective messages that resonate with their audience.

    References:

    Abelson, R. P. (1959). Modes of resolution of belief dilemmas. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 3(4), 343-352.

    Cooper, J. (2007). Cognitive dissonance: Fifty years of a classic theory. Sage Publications.

    Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Mills, C. M., & Jellison, J. M. (2005). Psychological reactions to contradiction, independence, and disagreement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 57-68.

    Miller, C. H., & Prentice, D. A. (2016). Changing behavior with persuasion and social influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 21-47.

    , , ,

  • Information Processing Theory

    Information processing theory is a psychological model that explains how individuals perceive, process, and retrieve information from their environment. This theory has significant implications for media students as it can help them understand how people interact with media, the factors that influence their media use, and how media can influence their attitudes and behavior. In this essay, we will discuss the main components of the information processing theory, its relevance to media students, and the empirical evidence that supports this theory.

    The Information Processing Theory The information processing theory posits that human cognition operates much like a computer, with information passing through a series of cognitive processes. These processes include attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval. Attention refers to the ability to focus on specific stimuli, while perception involves interpreting these stimuli based on past experiences and knowledge. Encoding involves transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory, while storage refers to the retention of information over time. Retrieval involves accessing stored information when it is needed (Sternberg, 2006).

    Relevance to Media Students Media students can benefit from understanding the information processing theory in several ways. First, it can help them understand how people process information from media. For instance, when people are exposed to media, they select certain information to attend to and interpret it based on their prior knowledge and experiences. This can help explain why people may have different interpretations of the same media content, depending on their background and beliefs.

    Second, the information processing theory can help media students understand how media can influence attitudes and behavior. According to the theory, media can affect the encoding and retrieval of information by altering the accessibility of certain information in memory. This means that exposure to media can influence the types of information that people remember and use to make judgments and decisions. For instance, research has shown that exposure to violent media can increase aggression in some individuals (Anderson et al., 2003). Understanding the mechanisms underlying these effects can help media students develop strategies for creating and evaluating media content that is less likely to have negative effects.

    Empirical Evidence Empirical evidence supports the information processing theory. For instance, research has shown that attentional processes are critical for encoding information in memory (Baddeley, 2012). Studies have also shown that individuals who are better at selective attention tend to have better memory (Unsworth & Spillers, 2010).

    Moreover, the theory has been applied to the study of media effects. For instance, research has shown that exposure to media can influence the accessibility of information in memory. For example, exposure to violent media can increase the accessibility of aggressive thoughts and feelings, which in turn can increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior (Anderson et al., 2003). Exposure to positive media, on the other hand, can increase the accessibility of positive thoughts and feelings, which may improve well-being (Ritterfeld et al., 2004).

    Conclusion In conclusion, the information processing theory can be a useful framework for understanding how people interact with media. It posits that attention, perception, encoding, storage, and retrieval are critical cognitive processes that enable individuals to process and use information from media. For media students, understanding this theory can help them create and evaluate media content that is less likely to have negative effects on attitudes and behavior. Empirical evidence supports the information processing theory, highlighting its relevance for both research and practice in the media field.

     References

    Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., … & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(3), 81-110.

    Baddeley, A. (2012). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 1-29.

    Ritterfeld, U., Cody, M. J., & Vorderer, P. (Eds.). (2004). Entertainment education: A communication strategy on the rise. Routledge.

    Sternberg, R. J. (2006). Cognitive psychology. Wadsworth.

    Unsworth, N., & Spillers, G. J. (2010). Working memory capacity: Attention control, secondary memory, or both? A direct test of the dual-component model. Journal of Memory and Language, 62(4), 392-406

    , , ,

  • Broadbent’s Filter Model

    Broadbent’s filter model is a classic theory in cognitive psychology that posits our attention acts as a filter that selectively allows certain information to pass through to our conscious awareness, while blocking out other information (Broadbent, 1958). The model proposes that we initially process all incoming sensory information in a pre-attentive stage, where the information is analyzed based on its physical features (Broadbent, 1958). This pre-attentive stage is thought to be automatic and unconscious, with no effort required on our part.

    The filter model has been subject to numerous empirical tests and has generally been supported by the evidence (Broadbent, 1958). However, some researchers have criticized the model for oversimplifying the complexity of attentional processes and for failing to account for individual differences in attentional abilities (Broadbent, 1958).

    Despite its limitations, Broadbent’s filter model remains a foundational theory in cognitive psychology and has influenced subsequent models of attention, including Treisman’s feature integration theory and Lavie’s perceptual load theory (Treisman, 1986; Lavie, 1995).

    In conclusion, Broadbent’s filter model provides a useful framework for understanding how we selectively attend to information in our environment, highlighting the complexity of attentional processes and the importance of understanding these processes for cognitive functioning (Broadbent, 1958).

    References:

    Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. Elsevier.

    Treisman, A. (1986). Features and objects: The fourteenth Bartlett memorial lecture. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 38(4), 527-582.

    Lavie, N. (1995). Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(3), 451-468.

    , , , , ,

  • Narrative Engagement

    Narrative engagement is a crucial concept in media studies that refers to the process by which audiences are drawn into a story and become emotionally invested in the characters and their journey. This engagement can be achieved through a range of narrative techniques, such as compelling storytelling, relatable characters, and immersive world-building. In this discussion, we will explore the concept of narrative engagement in more detail, with reference to relevant academic literature.

    One of the key factors in narrative engagement is the ability of a story to create a sense of immersion in the audience. Immersion refers to the degree to which the audience feels as though they are a part of the story world, and can be achieved through a variety of means, such as visual and auditory cues, interactivity, and sensory stimulation. According to research by Ryan and Deci (2006), immersion is an important component of narrative engagement, as it allows the audience to become fully absorbed in the story and feel a greater sense of connection with the characters.

    Another important aspect of narrative engagement is the creation of relatable and empathetic characters. According to research by Cohen (2001), characters that are well-developed and relatable are more likely to engage the audience emotionally, leading to greater investment in the story. Additionally, characters that exhibit traits or experiences that the audience can relate to, such as personal struggles or emotional turmoil, are more likely to elicit empathy and emotional responses from the audience.

    In addition to the above factors, effective storytelling is also critical to creating narrative engagement. This includes a well-structured plot, clear and concise writing, and the ability to create tension and suspense throughout the story. According to research by Mar and Oatley (2008), the ability of a story to create tension and suspense is one of the key factors in narrative engagement, as it keeps the audience invested and emotionally connected to the story.

    In conclusion, narrative engagement is a complex and multifaceted concept that is critical to the success of any narrative media. The ability of a story to create a sense of immersion, develop relatable characters, and engage the audience emotionally through effective storytelling are all important components of narrative engagement. By understanding and applying these principles, media students can create compelling and emotionally resonant stories that capture the imagination and engage audiences in meaningful ways.

    References:

    Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4(3), 245-264.

    Mar, R. A., & Oatley, K. (2008). The function of fiction is the abstraction and simulation of social experience. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(3), 173-192.

    Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will? Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1557-1585

    Facebook Twitter Email Share

    , , , ,

  • Aborption, Immersion, Presence

    Absorption, immersion, and presence are interrelated concepts that play a crucial role in media studies. Absorption refers to the degree to which an individual becomes engrossed in a media experience, while immersion refers to the sensation of being fully surrounded by the media environment. Presence, on the other hand, refers to the sense of “being there” within the media environment (Slater & Wilbur, 1997).

    The relationship between absorption, immersion, and presence is often described as a continuum, with absorption being the lowest level of engagement and presence being the highest. As a person becomes more absorbed in a media experience, they are more likely to become immersed in the environment, and ultimately, experience a greater sense of presence.

    Research has shown that the degree of absorption, immersion, and presence in media experiences can have a significant impact on a range of outcomes, including learning, behavior, and emotional responses. For example, individuals who are more absorbed, immersed, and present during a media experience are more likely to have higher levels of recall and retention, be more influenced by the content of the media, and have stronger emotional responses (Green & Brock, 2000; Kim & Biocca, 1997).

    In conclusion, absorption, immersion, and presence are interrelated concepts that play a critical role in media studies. As individuals become more absorbed in a media experience, they are more likely to become immersed in the environment and ultimately, experience a greater sense of presence. The degree of absorption, immersion, and presence in media experiences can have a significant impact on a range of outcomes, including learning, behavior, and emotional responses.

    References:

    Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79(5), 701.

    Kim, J., & Biocca, F. (1997). Telepresence via television: Two dimensions of telepresence may have different connections to memory and persuasion. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2), JCMC321.

    Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603-616

    , , ,

  • Parasocial Interactions

    Parasocial interactions refer to the psychological connections individuals form with media figures, such as celebrities, characters in films or TV shows, and social media influencers. These connections can be characterized by feelings of intimacy, attachment, and identification, despite the absence of any real-world interaction. Parasocial interactions have been studied extensively in media studies and psychology, and they have important implications for media students as both consumers and creators of media content.

    One of the key theoretical frameworks for understanding parasocial interactions is the uses and gratifications theory, which posits that individuals consume media to satisfy their particular needs and desires (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973). In the context of parasocial interactions, individuals may form connections with media figures to fulfill their need for social interaction, companionship, or escapism (Horton & Wohl, 1956). These connections can also provide individuals with a sense of belonging, identity, and self-esteem (Cohen, 2003).

    Parasocial interactions are not limited to traditional media, but have become increasingly common with the rise of social media influencers. Social media platforms allow individuals to interact with influencers on a more personal level, such as through direct messaging or comments, and to feel as if they have a more intimate relationship with them (Bridgman, 2020). These interactions can be particularly powerful, as they blur the line between celebrity and ordinary individuals, making the connection feel more authentic and personal (Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015).

    While parasocial interactions can be positive and fulfilling, they can also have negative consequences. One criticism of parasocial interactions is that they can lead to unrealistic expectations and harmful comparisons. For example, individuals may compare their own lives to the idealized versions presented by media figures, leading to feelings of inadequacy or low self-esteem (Perloff, 2014). Additionally, parasocial interactions can create a sense of dependency or obsession, leading to feelings of distress when the connection is broken (Rubin, Perse, & Powell, 1985).

    Another criticism of parasocial interactions is that they can be exploitative, particularly in the context of social media influencers. Influencers may use their connections with followers to promote products or engage in other commercial activities, without disclosing their financial interests (Achrol & Kotler, 2012). This can lead to individuals feeling manipulated or used, and can erode the trust and authenticity of the connection.

    For media students, an understanding of parasocial interactions is important both as consumers and creators of media content. As consumers, media students should be aware of the potential negative consequences of parasocial interactions, such as unrealistic expectations or harmful comparisons, and should be mindful of their own emotional investments in media figures. As creators, media students should be aware of the power of parasocial interactions in engaging audiences and should strive to create content that is authentic and transparent, rather than exploitative.

    In conclusion, parasocial interactions are a complex and important aspect of media consumption and creation. While they can provide individuals with a sense of intimacy and connection, they can also have negative consequences and should be approached with caution. Media students should be aware of the potential risks and benefits of parasocial interactions, and should strive to create and consume media content that is both engaging and ethical.

    References

    Achrol, R. S., & Kotler, P. (2012). Frontiers of the marketing paradigm in the third millennium. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 35-52.

    Bridgman, A. (2020). Parasocial interaction with Instagram influencers: An exploratory study. Young Consumers, 21(1), 1-16.

    Cohen, J. (2003). Parasocial break-up from favorite television characters: The role of attachment styles and relationship intensity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20(2), 187-202.

    Horton, D., & Wohl, R. R. (1956). Mass communication and para-social interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry, 19(3), 215-229.

    Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(4), 509-523.

    Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.

    Rubin, A. M., Perse, E. M., & Powell, R. A. (1985). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Human Communication Research, 12(2), 155-180.

    Tandoc, E. C., Ferrucci, P., & Duffy, M. (2015). Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students: Is Facebooking depressing? Computers in Human Behavior, 43, 139-146

    , , , ,

  • The Entertainment Model

    The Entertainment Model is a theory that explains how media content is created to entertain and engage audiences, rather than to inform or educate. This model is widely used in media studies and has been the subject of both praise and criticism. In this essay, we will discuss the Entertainment Model, its criticisms, and provide relevant citations and references.

    The Entertainment Model suggests that media content is primarily created to attract and retain audiences. This model is often used in the entertainment industry, including television shows, movies, music, and video games. Proponents of this theory argue that the primary goal of media producers is to create content that is engaging and enjoyable for viewers or listeners. According to this theory, the content of the media does not have to be informative or educational to be successful.

    Critics of the Entertainment Model argue that it encourages the production of shallow, meaningless content that is focused solely on profit, rather than on the needs and interests of the audience. Some critics also argue that the model can lead to the creation of content that is inappropriate or offensive, as producers may be more concerned with gaining attention and boosting their ratings or revenue than with producing high-quality content.

    One example of the Entertainment Model in action is the reality television genre, which often focuses on entertaining viewers with drama, conflict, and spectacle, rather than providing any meaningful educational or informative content. Proponents of the Entertainment Model might argue that these shows are popular precisely because they provide an engaging form of entertainment that many viewers enjoy.

    However, critics of the Entertainment Model argue that reality television can be harmful, as it often portrays negative stereotypes and reinforces harmful social attitudes. For example, reality TV shows that focus on romantic relationships may promote unrealistic and unhealthy relationship dynamics, while shows that focus on competitions or survival may promote an unhealthy focus on winning at all costs.

    In conclusion, while the Entertainment Model has its supporters, it also has its critics. Critics argue that the model encourages the production of shallow, meaningless content, while supporters argue that it simply reflects the interests and desires of audiences. Ultimately, whether or not the Entertainment Model is a valid and useful framework for media studies is a matter of ongoing debate and discussion.

    References:

    Gripsrud, J. (2000). The Dynasty Years: Hollywood Television and Critical Media Studies. Routledge.

    Livingstone, S. (2009). On the mediation of everything: ICA presidential address 2008. Journal of communication, 59(1), 1-18.

    Miller, T., & McAllister, M. P. (2001). Digital content and the cultural industries. Information Society, 17(3), 147-158.

    Turow, J. (2011). The entertainment divide: how the media shape our perceptions of reality. Oxford University Press

    , , , ,

  • Extended Transportation Imagery Model (ETIM)

    The Extended Transportation Imagery Model (ETIM) is a theoretical framework that was developed to explain how media messages influence individuals’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through the use of vivid imagery and narrative transportation. The model is particularly relevant for media students who are interested in studying the impact of media messages on audiences. In this response, I will discuss the key concepts of the ETIM, provide relevant citations, and offer criticisms of the model.

    The Extended Transportation Imagery Model (ETIM)

    The ETIM was first introduced by Green and Brock (2000) and was later extended by Moyer-Gusé (2008) to include additional constructs. The model posits that when individuals are exposed to media messages that contain vivid imagery and a compelling narrative, they are transported into the story world and experience a form of mental immersion. During this process of transportation, individuals become less aware of their immediate surroundings and are more likely to adopt the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors presented in the story.

    The ETIM proposes that transportation is influenced by several factors, including the characteristics of the media message, the individual’s personal involvement with the topic, and the individual’s cognitive and emotional responses to the message. Additionally, the model suggests that transportation can lead to long-lasting effects on attitudes and behavior, particularly when the narrative is congruent with the individual’s pre-existing beliefs and values.

    Citations

    Green and Brock (2000) initially introduced the ETIM in their study of the effects of narrative persuasion on attitudes and behavior. Moyer-Gusé (2008) later extended the model to include additional constructs, such as transportation into the story world and narrative engagement. The ETIM has been used in a variety of studies to examine the impact of media messages on attitudes and behavior, particularly in the areas of health communication and entertainment media (e.g., Moyer-Gusé, Mahood, & Brookes, 2011; Slater & Rouner, 2002).

    Criticisms

    While the ETIM provides a useful framework for understanding the impact of media messages on audiences, it has been subject to several criticisms. One criticism is that the model does not adequately account for individual differences in the extent to which people are transported into the story world. Some individuals may be more susceptible to transportation than others, and the model does not address these differences (Green, 2004).

    Another criticism is that the model does not consider the role of social context in the process of transportation. For example, a media message may be more or less persuasive depending on the social norms and values of the audience (Tukachinsky, Mastro, & Yarchi, 2015). Additionally, the model does not address the potential for counter-arguing, or the process by which individuals actively resist persuasive messages (Pfau & Van Bockern, 2004).

    Conclusion

    The Extended Transportation Imagery Model provides a useful framework for media students interested in studying the impact of media messages on audiences. The model proposes that transportation into the story world is a key mechanism through which media messages can influence attitudes and behavior. However, the model has been subject to criticisms related to its failure to account for individual differences in susceptibility to transportation and its neglect of social context and counter-arguing. Nonetheless, the model continues to be an important theoretical framework for media scholars and practitioners alike.

    References:

    Green, M. C. (2004). Transportability: A theoretical concept and construct for the study of narrative effects. Journal of Communication, 54(3), 469-488.

    Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701-721.

    , , ,