Onderzoeksmethoden Research Methods

Tag: Research Design

  • Suspension of Disbelief

    Suspension of disbelief is a term used to describe the willingness of an audience to accept the unrealistic or fantastical elements of a story in order to fully engage with and enjoy a work of fiction. This concept is particularly relevant to media students, who must be able to understand how an audience interacts with different forms of media and how the medium itself can impact their ability to suspend disbelief.

    One of the earliest discussions of suspension of disbelief can be found in the work of philosopher and literary critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In his 1817 Biographia Literaria, Coleridge explains that, in order to fully enjoy a work of fiction, the reader must “suppose the story to be true, at least while he is reading.” In other words, the reader must be willing to set aside their disbelief in order to fully engage with the story.

    In more recent years, media scholars have continued to explore the concept of suspension of disbelief. For example, in his 1986 book Textual Poachers, Henry Jenkins argues that fan communities often rely on suspension of disbelief in order to fully immerse themselves in their chosen fandom. Similarly, media scholar Marsha Kinder discusses the role of immersion and identification in her 1991 book Playing with Power, arguing that “the key to media consumption is a kind of active engagement that involves the audience in the process of suspending disbelief.”

    However, not all scholars are convinced of the value of suspension of disbelief. In his 2006 book The Reality Effect, media scholar Joel Black argues that the concept is ultimately limiting, as it assumes that audiences are simply passive recipients of media rather than active interpreters. Black suggests that a more productive approach to understanding audience engagement with media would be to focus on the ways in which audiences actively negotiate their relationship to the text, rather than simply “suspending disbelief.”

  • Escapisme

    Escapism, defined as the tendency of individuals to seek out entertainment and distraction from the stresses and challenges of everyday life, can be found in various forms of media content, such as books, films, TV shows, and video games (Kahn, Shen, & Lu, 2013). For example, J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series provides readers with a fantastical world filled with magic and adventure, while J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy offers a world of heroes and villains that is far removed from the mundane realities of daily life. In video games, players can immerse themselves in virtual worlds, such as Minecraft, where they can build and explore without the constraints of the real world.

    While escapism can provide individuals with a sense of relaxation and relief, it can also have negative effects. One criticism of escapism is that it can be a form of avoidance behavior, whereby individuals use media content to escape from their problems rather than confronting them directly (Rubin, 2002). This can result in a lack of productivity and avoidance of real-life responsibilities. Another criticism of escapism is that it can create unrealistic expectations and a false sense of reality. For instance, some individuals may come to expect the same level of excitement and adventure in their real lives that they experience in the media they consume, which can lead to dissatisfaction and disappointment with their real-life experiences (Zillmann, 2000).

    Despite these criticisms, escapism can have positive effects on individuals. It can provide a form of mental relaxation and reduce stress levels (Kahn, Shen, & Lu, 2013). It can also foster a sense of community among individuals who share a love for a particular book, film, or video game.

    In conclusion, while escapism in media content can provide individuals with a sense of relief and comfort from the pressures of everyday life, it is important to be aware of its potential negative effects, such as avoidance behavior and unrealistic expectations (Rubin, 2002). Individuals should strive to find a balance between their media consumption and real-life responsibilities.

    References:

    Kahn, A. S., Shen, C., & Lu, L. (2013). Effects of social media use on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(6), 370-377.

    Rubin, A. M. (2002). The uses-and-gratifications perspective of media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 525-548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Zillmann, D. (2000). Influence of unrestrained access to erotica on adolescents’ and young adults’ dispositions toward sexuality. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27(2), 41-44

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  • Mood Management Theory

    Mood Management Theory, developed by Zillmann in the 1980s, proposes that people engage in media consumption to regulate their emotions and mood. According to the theory, media consumption is an active and purposeful activity, where people seek to manage their emotions and mood, either by maintaining or enhancing their current mood or altering it (Zillmann, 1988). This theory has significant implications for media studies, as it highlights the importance of the media in shaping an individual’s emotions and mood.

    However, some critics argue that the Mood Management Theory oversimplifies the relationship between media consumption and mood regulation. They suggest that the theory does not consider the complexity of human emotions and how different media forms may affect emotions and moods differently (Dillard & Shen, 2005). For example, listening to music may uplift one person’s mood, but it may not have any effect on another person’s mood. Similarly, watching a comedy film may make one person laugh, but it may have no effect on another person’s mood.

    Moreover, critics suggest that the Mood Management Theory neglects the role of social and cultural factors in media consumption. People’s media consumption patterns are not solely based on their moods and emotions but are also influenced by social and cultural factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, among others (Dillard & Shen, 2005).

    Furthermore, the Mood Management Theory lacks empirical evidence, and more research is needed to establish a direct relationship between media consumption and mood regulation. Although some studies have provided evidence for the Mood Management Theory, other studies have found no or weak evidence for the theory (Oliver & Bartsch, 2010).

    Despite these criticisms, the Mood Management Theory has significant implications for media producers and advertisers. The theory suggests that media producers and advertisers can use media content to target specific emotions and moods to influence the audience’s behavior.

    In conclusion, while the Mood Management Theory has significant implications for media studies, it has been criticized for oversimplifying the relationship between media consumption and mood regulation, neglecting the role of social and cultural factors in media consumption, and lacking empirical evidence. Further research is needed to examine the relationship between media consumption and mood regulation.

    References:

    Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72(2), 144-168.

    Oliver, M. B., & Bartsch, A. (2010). Appreciation as audience response: Exploring entertainment gratifications beyond hedonism. Human Communication Research, 36(1), 53-81.

    Raney, A. A., & Bryant, J. (2006). Handbook of entertainment media. Routledge.

    Zillmann, D. (1988). Mood management: Using entertainment to full advantage. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 32(2), 103-123.

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  • Structural Affect Theory

    Structural affect theory is an approach to understanding how media texts generate affective responses, such as suspense, curiosity, and surprise, in their audiences (Carroll, 1996; Plantinga, 2009; Smith, 2014). This theory emphasizes the role of the narrative structure of a media text, as well as the way that it is presented, in shaping emotional responses in viewers or readers.

    One key element of structural affect theory is the idea that suspense is generated through the manipulation of information. Media texts may withhold certain information from the audience, or provide it in a piecemeal fashion, in order to create a sense of anticipation and tension (Plantinga, 2009). This can be achieved through techniques such as foreshadowing, cliffhangers, and red herrings.

    Another important aspect of the theory is the idea that curiosity is generated through a sense of uncertainty or ambiguity. Media texts may present puzzles or mysteries that the audience is encouraged to solve, creating a sense of engagement and investment (Smith, 2014). This can be achieved through techniques such as enigmas, riddles, and complex characters or plots.

    Finally, surprise is seen as a key element of affective response in media texts. Media can create surprise through the unexpected, such as plot twists or sudden reversals, or through the inversion of expectations (Carroll, 1996). This can be achieved through techniques such as irony, satire, and subversion.

    Critics of structural affect theory have argued that it places too much emphasis on the narrative structure of media texts, and not enough on the cultural, social, or historical context in which they are produced and consumed (Ang, 2012). Others have suggested that the theory may be too focused on the formal aspects of media, and not sufficiently attentive to the affective responses of individual viewers or readers (Klevjer, 2006). Additionally, some have criticized the theory for being overly deterministic, assuming that all viewers will respond in the same way to the same stimuli (Smith, 2014).

    In conclusion, while structural affect theory offers valuable insights into the ways in which media texts can generate affective responses in their audiences, it is important for media students to be aware of its limitations and to consider other approaches to media analysis as well.

    References:

    Ang, I. (2012). Desperately Seeking the Audience. Routledge.

    Carroll, N. (1996). Theorizing the Moving Image. Cambridge University Press.

    Klevjer, R. (2006). “What’s the Matter with Cognition?” — A Critique of Stereotypical Notions in Film Theory. Projections, 1(1), 25-38.

    Plantinga, C. (2009). Moving Viewers: American Film and the Spectator’s Experience. University of California Press.

    Smith, M. (2014). Engaging Characters: Fiction, Emotion, and the Cinema. Oxford University Press.

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  • Theories Models Concepts

    n the field of media studies, theories, models, concepts, and variables are all important concepts that help researchers understand and analyze various phenomena related to media.

    Theories refer to systematic frameworks that provide explanations for various phenomena in the media industry. These can be broad or specific and help researchers to understand the nature and function of media. For example, the Uses and Gratifications Theory explains how audiences use media to satisfy their needs and desires (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974).

    Models are simplified representations of complex phenomena that allow researchers to make predictions and test hypotheses. For example, the Communication Accommodation Theory proposes a model that explains how individuals adjust their communication styles to accommodate the expectations of others (Giles & Coupland, 1991).

    Concepts are abstract ideas or generalizations that represent important features or characteristics of a particular phenomenon. For example, the concept of agenda-setting describes how media coverage can influence the importance placed on certain issues by the public (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

    Variables are specific measurable factors that can be manipulated or observed in research. For example, in a study on media effects, the amount of time spent watching television can be a variable of interest. Variables can be independent, dependent, or control variables, depending on their role in the research design.

    In conclusion, theories, models, concepts, and variables are essential concepts for media students to understand and apply in their research. By using these concepts, media students can gain a deeper understanding of media-related phenomena and conduct rigorous and valid research.

    References:

    Giles, H., & Coupland, J. (1991). Language: Contexts and consequences. Open University Press.

    Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Utilization of mass communication by the individual. In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19-32). Sage.

    McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.

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  • Chatman’s Narrative Theory

    Chatman’s narrative theory provides a valuable framework for media students to examine and comprehend how narratives operate across different forms of media. The theory highlights three crucial components that contribute to a coherent narrative: story, plot, and narration. Chatman asserts that these elements work together to create a meaningful and complex narrative (Chatman, 1978).

    One of the most significant contributions of Chatman’s theory is that it emphasizes the importance of the audience’s role in creating meaning in a narrative. As Chatman argues, the way in which the narrative is presented has a substantial impact on how the audience interprets and understands the story (Chatman, 1978). Therefore, media creators need to consider how their presentation of the narrative elements may affect the audience’s interpretation and reception.

    Another critical element of Chatman’s theory is his recognition of the role of repetition and variation in constructing a narrative. According to Chatman, repetition can reinforce the significance of particular events or motifs, while variation can introduce new perspectives and ideas to the story. By utilizing repetition and variation strategically, media creators can construct more complex and engaging narratives that capture the audience’s attention and imagination (Chatman, 1978).

    However, some scholars have criticized Chatman’s theory for placing too much emphasis on the formal elements of narrative structure, such as plot and narration, and neglecting the broader social and cultural contexts that shape the creation and reception of narratives. Thus, some have advocated for a more nuanced approach to narrative analysis that considers the political and cultural factors that influence the creation and reception of narratives (Ryan, 2006).

    In conclusion, Chatman’s narrative theory provides an essential foundation for media students to analyze and understand the intricacies of narrative construction in different media forms. By highlighting the role of story, plot, and narration, as well as the significance of the audience’s interpretation, Chatman’s theory has made significant contributions to our comprehension of how narratives function in media (Herman, 2009). Nonetheless, further research is necessary to appreciate the complexities of narrative in various media forms fully.

    References:

    Chatman, S. B. (1978). Story and discourse: Narrative structure in fiction and film. Cornell University Press.

    Herman, D. (2009). Basic elements of narrative. John Benjamins Publishing.

    Ryan, M. L. (2006). Narrative across media: The languages of storytelling. University of Nebraska Press.

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  • Suspense

    Suspense is a powerful emotional reaction that media students should be familiar with. It is a feeling of uncertainty, anticipation, and tension that builds up as the audience waits for the outcome of an event. According to Gerrig and Zimbardo (2018), “suspense is a cognitive and emotional experience that arises from the audience’s awareness of an impending outcome that is uncertain and potentially significant” (p. 278).

    Suspense is often used in films, television shows, and literature to engage the audience and create a sense of excitement. It can be created through various techniques, such as music, camera angles, and pacing. For example, in Alfred Hitchcock’s film “Psycho,” the famous shower scene is shot in quick, jarring cuts that create a sense of chaos and uncertainty, which heightens the suspense.

    In addition, suspense can be enhanced by the use of foreshadowing. Foreshadowing is a technique that hints at future events, which can increase the audience’s anticipation and sense of unease. For example, in the television series “Breaking Bad,” there are numerous instances of foreshadowing, such as the use of the color green to symbolize death, which creates a sense of dread and anticipation in the audience.

    Suspense is an effective tool for media creators because it keeps the audience engaged and interested in the story. It can also elicit a strong emotional response from the audience, as they become invested in the outcome of the story. As Gerrig and Zimbardo (2018) note, “suspenseful stories tap into deep-seated human needs for arousal, uncertainty, and social connection, and they can provide a powerful emotional experience that leaves a lasting impression on the viewer or reader” (p. 279).

    In conclusion, suspense is an important emotional reaction for media students to understand. It is a feeling of uncertainty, anticipation, and tension that is created through various techniques, such as music, camera angles, pacing, and foreshadowing. Suspense is an effective tool for media creators to engage and emotionally connect with their audiences, and it can leave a lasting impression on the viewer or reader.

    References:

    Gerrig, R., & Zimbardo, P. (2018). Psychology and life (21st ed.). Pearson.

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  • Curiosity

    Curiosity is a complex and powerful emotional reaction that filmmakers often aim to elicit in their audiences. Various techniques and effects can create curiosity in film, engaging viewers in the story and keeping them invested in it. This essay discusses some of the effects that can create curiosity in film.

    One of the most effective ways to create curiosity in film is to use suspense. Suspense involves delaying the resolution of a particular situation, creating a sense of tension and anticipation in the audience. Alfred Hitchcock was a master of this technique, and his films such as “Psycho” and “Vertigo” are filled with moments of suspense that keep viewers on the edge of their seats (Deutelbaum & Poague, 2011). In “Psycho”, the shower scene is filled with suspense as the audience knows that the killer is in the bathroom, but Marion does not. The use of suspense in this scene creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they wait to see what will happen next.

    Another technique that can create curiosity in film is to use mystery. Mystery involves presenting the audience with a puzzle or a question that needs to be solved. This can be achieved through the use of enigmatic characters, strange events, or unexplained phenomena. David Lynch’s “Mulholland Drive” is an example of a film that uses mystery to create curiosity. The film is filled with cryptic clues and unexplained events that keep viewers guessing as to what is really going on (Gibson, 2016). The use of mystery in this film creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they try to unravel the secrets of the story.

    Ambiguity is another technique that can create curiosity in film. Ambiguity involves presenting the audience with a situation or a character that is not clearly defined. This can be achieved through the use of unclear motives, conflicting emotions, or contradictory actions. Christopher Nolan’s “Inception” is an example of a film that uses ambiguity to create curiosity. The film is filled with complex and layered characters, each with their own motivations and desires. The use of ambiguity in this film creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they try to understand the true nature of the story (Nolan, 2010).

    The unexpected is another technique that can create curiosity in film. The unexpected involves presenting the audience with a surprise or a twist that they were not expecting. This can be achieved through the use of unexpected events, unexpected character actions, or unexpected plot twists. M. Night Shyamalan’s “The Sixth Sense” is an example of a film that uses the unexpected to create curiosity. The film has a twist ending that completely changes the audience’s perception of the story, creating a sense of curiosity in the audience as they try to figure out how they missed the clues (Ebert, 1999).

    In addition to these techniques, there are other factors that can create curiosity as an emotional reaction in film. The use of music is one such factor. Music can set the tone for a scene, create a sense of tension or anticipation, and add emotional depth to the story. John Williams’ theme music in “Jaws” creates a sense of dread and anticipation in the audience, building up to the appearance of the shark (Sider, Freeman, & Sider, 2013). The use of music in this film creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they wait to see what will happen next.

    Visual effects are another factor that can create curiosity in film. Visual effects can be used to create a sense of awe, wonder, or excitement in the audience. In “Avatar”, James Cameron used visual effects to create the stunning world of Pandora, immersing the audience in a world unlike anything they had seen before (Prince, 2013).The 

    use of visual effects in this film creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they explore this new and unfamiliar world.

    Finally, the use of pacing can also create curiosity in film. Pacing involves the speed and rhythm at which the story is told, and it can be used to create a sense of tension and anticipation in the audience. Steven Spielberg’s “Jurassic Park” is an example of a film that uses pacing to create curiosity. The film starts off slowly, introducing the characters and the setting, but as the story progresses, the pace quickens, building up to the climactic finale (Young, 2000). The use of pacing in this film creates a sense of curiosity in the audience as they wait to see how the story will unfold.

    In conclusion, there are many techniques and effects that can create curiosity as an emotional reaction in film. Suspense, mystery, ambiguity, the unexpected, music, visual effects, and pacing are just some of the ways that filmmakers can engage their audiences and keep them invested in the story. By understanding how these techniques and effects work, filmmakers can create films that are not only entertaining but also emotionally engaging and thought-provoking.

    References:

    Deutelbaum, M. & Poague, L. (2011). A Hitchcock reader. John Wiley & Sons.

    Ebert, R. (1999). The Sixth Sense. Roger Ebert. https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-sixth-sense-1999

    Gibson, S. (2016). Mulholland Drive. Harvard Film Archive. https://harvardfilmarchive.org/calendar/mulholland-drive-2016-04

    Nolan, C. (2010). Inception. Warner Bros. Pictures.

    Prince, S. (2013). Digital visual effects in cinema: The seduction of reality. Rutgers University Press.

    Sider, L., Freeman, D., & Sider, J. (2013). Soundscape and soundtrack. John Wiley & Sons.

    Young, B. (2000). Jurassic Park. Universal Pictures.

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  • Character Identification Theory

    he character identification theory is a psychological theory that proposes that individuals tend to identify with fictional characters in media, such as movies, books, and video games. This theory suggests that people are more likely to identify with characters who share their values, beliefs, and experiences, and that this identification can have a significant impact on their attitudes and behaviors.

    The concept of character identification has been studied in various fields, including psychology, media studies, and literature. Research in psychology has shown that individuals who strongly identify with fictional characters are more likely to adopt the beliefs and behaviors of those characters. For example, a study by Tamborini and Stiff (2002) found that individuals who identified with the main character in a television show were more likely to adopt the same values and behaviors as that character.

    Similarly, research in media studies has demonstrated the power of character identification in shaping audience attitudes and behaviors. For instance, a study by Cohen (2001) found that audiences who identified with a media character were more likely to have positive attitudes towards the social issues addressed in the media content.

    There are several reasons why individuals might identify with fictional characters. One of the main reasons is the perceived similarity between the individual and the character. For example, if a character in a movie is going through a difficult time that the individual has also experienced, they may be more likely to identify with that character. Additionally, individuals may identify with characters who possess qualities or values that they aspire to have themselves.

    Furthermore, character identification can be influenced by a range of factors, including the individual’s personality, cultural background, and media preferences. For example, individuals who are high in empathy may be more likely to identify with characters who are going through emotional struggles, while individuals who value independence and self-sufficiency may be more likely to identify with characters who exhibit those qualities.

    Despite the potential benefits of character identification, there are also several criticisms of this theory. One of the main criticisms is that it oversimplifies the complex relationship between media consumption and real-world behavior. While character identification can certainly influence people’s attitudes and beliefs, it is just one of many factors that can shape their behavior.

    Moreover, some critics argue that character identification can have negative effects on individuals, particularly if the characters they identify with exhibit problematic behaviors or attitudes. For example, a study by Mullin and Linz (1995) found that men who identified with violent media characters were more likely to engage in aggressive behavior.

    Another potential limitation of the character identification theory is that it may not fully capture the complexity of the audience-media relationship. For example, individuals may identify with multiple characters in a single media text, or they may identify with a character in one media text but not in another.

    Despite these criticisms, the character identification theory remains an important perspective in the study of media effects. By considering the ways in which individuals identify with fictional characters, researchers and practitioners can better understand how media content influences audience attitudes and behaviors.

    In conclusion, the character identification theory provides an interesting perspective on the role of fictional characters in media, but it is important to consider its limitations and the broader context in which media consumption occurs. Future research can build upon this theory by exploring the nuances of character identification and its effects on different types of individuals and media content.

    References:

    • Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4(3), 245-264.
    • Mullin, C. R., & Linz, D. (1995). Desensitization and resensitization to violence against women: Effects of exposure to sexually violent films on judgments of domestic violence victims. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(3), 449-459.
    • Tamborini.R, & Stiff, J. B. (2002). Exploring the role of identification in the enjoyment of mediated experiences. Journal of Communication, 52(3), 437-452.
    • Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1994). Entertainment as media effect. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 437-461). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
    •  Van Loon, J. (2020). Character Identification: Theoretical Model and Empirical Findings. International Journal of Communication, 14, 15.
    • Giles, D. C. (2010). Media psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
    •  Slater, M. D. (2007). Reinforcing spirals: The mutual influence of media selectivity and media effects and their impact on individual behavior and social identity. Communication Theory, 17(3), 281-303.
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  • Framing

    Framing is a complex process that involves selectively emphasizing certain aspects of a story or issue while downplaying or omitting others to shape the audience’s perception and interpretation of the event. The concept of framing has been widely discussed in media studies and communication research, as it plays a critical role in shaping public opinion and behavior.

    Agenda-setting is one communication theory that is closely linked to framing. Agenda-setting refers to the process by which the media selects and emphasizes certain topics or issues, thereby influencing what the public considers important (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). Framing is a key part of this process, as the way a story is framed can determine whether it becomes a top priority in the news or is overlooked altogether.

    Research has shown that framing can have a powerful effect on public opinion and behavior. For example, a study by Entman (1993) found that media framing of racial protests influenced public opinion about the protests and the protesters. The study found that the media’s focus on violence and disorder in the protests led the public to view the protests as more violent and disruptive than they actually were. Similarly, a study by Iyengar (1991) found that the way the media framed the issue of crime and violence in the United States influenced public attitudes towards crime and support for tougher criminal justice policies.

    Framing has also been linked to cultivation theory. Cultivation theory suggests that media can shape people’s perceptions of reality by portraying certain messages and images repeatedly over time (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). Framing plays a key role in cultivation theory, as the way a story is framed can determine how often and in what context it is presented to the audience.

    Finally, social identity theory has also been linked to framing. Social identity theory suggests that people’s sense of self is shaped by their social group membership and the way that group is portrayed in the media (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Framing can influence the way that social groups are portrayed in the media, and thus can influence how people identify with those groups.

    In conclusion, framing is a critical concept in media studies and communication research. It is closely linked to other communication theories, such as agenda-setting, cultivation theory, and social identity theory. Research has shown that framing can have a powerful effect on public opinion and behavior, highlighting the importance of understanding the role of framing in media and communication.

    References:

    Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of communication, 43(4), 51-58.

    Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of communication, 26(2), 173-199.

    Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. University of Chicago Press.

    McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public opinion quarterly, 36(2), 176-187.

    Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The social psychology of intergroup relations, 33(47), 74.

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