Onderzoeksmethoden Research Methods

Tag: Research General

  • Transperancy

    Transparency in research is a vital aspect of ensuring the validity and credibility of the findings. A transparent research process means that the research methods, data, and results are openly available to the public and can be easily replicated and verified by other researchers. In this section, we will elaborate on the different aspects that lead to transparency in research.

    Research Design and Methods: Transparency in research begins with a clear and concise description of the research design and methods used. This includes stating the research question, objectives, and hypothesis, as well as the sampling techniques, data collection methods, and statistical analysis procedures. Researchers should also provide a detailed explanation of any potential limitations or biases in the study, including any sources of error.

    Data Availability: One of the critical aspects of transparency in research is data availability. Providing access to the raw data used in the research allows other researchers to verify the findings and conduct further analysis on the data. Data sharing should be done in a secure and ethical manner, following relevant data protection laws and regulations. Open access to data can also facilitate transparency and accountability, promoting public trust in the research process.

    Reporting of Findings: To ensure transparency, researchers should provide a clear and detailed report of their findings. This includes presenting the results in a way that is easy to understand, providing supporting evidence such as graphs, charts, and tables, and explaining any potential confounding variables or alternative explanations for the findings. A transparent reporting of findings also means acknowledging any limitations or weaknesses in the research process.

    Conflicts of Interest: Transparency in research also requires that researchers disclose any conflicts of interest that may influence the research process or findings. This includes any funding sources, affiliations, or personal interests that may impact the research. Disclosing conflicts of interest maintains the credibility of the research and prevents any perception of bias.

    Open Communication: Finally, researchers should engage in open and transparent communication with other researchers and the public. This includes sharing findings through open access publications and presenting findings at conferences and public events. Researchers should also be open to feedback and criticism, as this can help improve the quality of the research. Open communication also promotes accountability, transparency, and trust in the research process.

    In conclusion, transparency in research is essential to ensure the validity and credibility of the findings. To achieve transparency, researchers should provide a clear description of the research design and methods, make data openly available, provide a detailed report of findings, disclose any conflicts of interest, and engage in open communication with others. Following these practices enhances the quality and impact of the research, promoting public trust in the research process.

    Examples

    1. Research Design and Methods: Example: A study on the impact of a new teaching method on student performance clearly states the research question, objectives, and hypothesis, as well as the sampling techniques, data collection methods, and statistical analysis procedures used. The researchers also explain any potential limitations or biases in the study, such as the limited sample size or potential confounding variables.
    2. Data Availability: Example: A study on the effects of a new drug on a particular disease makes the raw data available to other researchers, including any code used to clean and analyze the data. The data is shared in a secure and ethical manner, following relevant data protection laws and regulations, and can be accessed through an online data repository.
    3. Reporting of Findings: Example: A study on the relationship between social media use and mental health provides a clear and detailed report of the findings, presenting the results in a way that is easy to understand and providing supporting evidence such as graphs and tables. The researchers also explain any potential confounding variables or alternative explanations for the findings and acknowledge any limitations or weaknesses in the research process.
    4. Conflicts of Interest: Example: A study on the safety of a new vaccine discloses that the research was funded by the vaccine manufacturer. The researchers acknowledge the potential for bias and take steps to ensure the validity and credibility of the findings, such as involving independent reviewers in the research process.
    5. Open Communication: Example: A study on the effectiveness of a new cancer treatment presents the findings at a public conference, engaging in open and transparent communication with other researchers and the public. The researchers are open to feedback and criticism, responding to questions and concerns from the audience and taking steps to address any limitations or weaknesses in the research process. The findings are also published in an open access journal, promoting transparency and accountability.
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  • Tip Sheet Research Paper

    You may read this TIP Sheet from start to finish before you begin your paper, or skip to the steps that are causing you the most grief.

    1. Choosing a topic: Interest, information, and focus
    Your job will be more pleasant, and you will be more apt to retain information if you choose a topic that holds your interest. Even if a general topic is assigned (“Write about impacts of GMO crops on world food supply”), as much as possible find an approach that suits your interests. Your topic should be one on which you can find adequate information; you might need to do some preliminary research to determine this. Go to the Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature in the reference section of the library, or to an electronic database such as Proquest or Wilson Web, and search for your topic. The Butte College Library Reference Librarians are more than happy to assist you at this (or any) stage of your research. Scan the results to see how much information has been published. Then, narrow your topic to manageable size:

    Too Broad: Childhood diseasesToo Broad: Eating disorders
    Focused: Juvenile DiabetesFocused: Anorexia Nervosa

    Once you have decided on a topic and determined that enough information is available, you are ready to proceed. At this point, however, if you are having difficulty finding adequate quality information, stop wasting your time; find another topic.

    2. Preliminary reading & recordkeeping
    Gather some index cards or a small notebook and keep them with you as you read. First read a general article on your topic, for example from an encyclopedia. On an index card or in the notebook, record the author, article and/or book title, and all publication information in the correct format (MLA or APA, for example) specified by your instructor. (If you need to know what publication information is needed for the various types of sources, see a writing guide such as SF Writer.) On the index cards or in your notebook, write down information you want to use from each identified source, including page numbers. Use quotation marks on anything you copy exactly, so you can distinguish later between exact quotes and paraphrasing. (You will still attribute information you have quoted or paraphrased.)

    Some students use a particular index card method throughout the process of researching and writing that allows them great flexibility in organizing and re-organizing as well as in keeping track of sources; others color-code or otherwise identify groups of facts. Use any method that works for you in later drafting your paper, but always
    start with good recordkeeping.

    3. Organizing: Mind map or outline
    Based on your preliminary reading, draw up a working mind map or outline. Include any important, interesting, or provocative points, including your own ideas about the topic. A mind map is less linear and may even include questions you want to find answers to. Use the method that works best for you. The object is simply to group ideas in logically related groups. You may revise this mind map or outline at any time; it is much easier to reorganize a paper by crossing out or adding sections to a mind map or outline than it is to laboriously start over with the writing itself.

    4. Formulating a thesis: Focus and craftsmanship
    Write a well defined, focused, three- to five-point thesis statement, but be prepared to revise it later if necessary. Take your time crafting this statement into one or two sentences, for it will control the direction and development of your entire paper.

    For more on developing thesis statements, see the TIP Sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.”

    5. Researching: Facts and examples
    Now begin your heavy-duty research. Try the internet, electronic databases, reference books, newspaper articles, and books for a balance of sources. For each source, write down on an index card (or on a separate page of your notebook) the publication information you will need for your works cited (MLA) or bibliography (APA) page. Write important points, details, and examples, always distinguishing between direct quotes and paraphrasing. As you read, remember that an expert opinion is more valid than a general opinion, and for some topics (in science and history, for example), more recent research may be more valuable than older research. Avoid relying too heavily on internet sources, which vary widely in quality and authority and sometimes even disappear before you can complete your paper.

    Never copy-and-paste from internet sources directly into any actual draft of your paper. For more information on plagiarism, obtain from the Butte College Student Services office a copy of the college’s policy on plagiarism, or attend the Critical Skills Plagiarism Workshop given each semester.

    6. Rethinking: Matching mind map and thesis
    After you have read deeply and gathered plenty of information, expand or revise your working mind map or outline by adding information, explanations, and examples. Aim for balance in developing each of your main points (they should be spelled out in your thesis statement). Return to the library for additional information if it is needed to evenly develop these points, or revise your thesis statement to better reflect what you have learned or the direction your paper seems to have taken.

    7. Drafting: Beginning in the middle
    Write the body of the paper, starting with the thesis statement and omitting for now the introduction (unless you already know exactly how to begin, but few writers do). Use supporting detail to logically and systematically validate your thesis statement. For now, omit the conclusion also.

    For more on systematically developing a thesis statement, see TIP sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.”

    8. Revising: Organization and attribution
    Read, revise, and make sure that your ideas are clearly organized and that they support your thesis statement. Every single paragraph should have a single topic that is derived from the thesis statement. If any paragraph does not, take it out, or revise your thesis if you think it is warranted. Check that you have quoted and paraphrased accurately, and that you have acknowledged your sources even for your paraphrasing. Every single idea that did not come to you as a personal epiphany or as a result of your own methodical reasoning should be attributed to its owner.

    For more on writing papers that stay on-topic, see the TIP Sheets “Developing a Thesis and Supporting Arguments” and “How to Structure an Essay.” For more on avoiding plagiarism, see the Butte College Student Services brochure, “Academic Honesty at Butte College,” or attend the Critical Skills Plagiarism Workshop given each semester.

    9. Writing: Intro, conclusion, and citations
    Write the final draft. Add a one-paragraph introduction and a one-paragraph conclusion. Usually the thesis statement appears as the last sentence or two of the first, introductory paragraph. Make sure all citations appear in the correct format for the style (MLA, APA) you are using. The conclusion should not simply restate your thesis, but should refer to it. (For more on writing conclusions, see the TIP Sheet “How to Structure an Essay.”) Add a Works Cited (for MLA) or Bibliography (for APA) page.

    10. Proofreading: Time and objectivity
    Time permitting, allow a few days to elapse between the time you finish writing your last draft and the time you begin to make final corrections. This “time out” will make you more perceptive, more objective, and more critical. On your final read, check for grammar, punctuation, correct word choice, adequate and smooth transitions, sentence structure, and sentence variety. For further proofreading strategies, see the TIP Sheet “Revising, Editing, and Proofreading.”

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  • Sampling Error

    Sampling error is a statistical concept that occurs when a sample of a population is used to make inferences about the entire population, but the sample doesn’t accurately represent the population. This can happen due to a variety of reasons, such as the sample size being too small or the sampling method being biased. In this essay, I will explain sampling error to media students, provide examples, and discuss the effects it can have.

    When conducting research in media studies, it’s essential to have a sample that accurately represents the population being studied. For example, if a media student is researching the viewing habits of teenagers in the United States, it’s important to ensure that the sample of teenagers used in the study is diverse enough to represent the larger population of all teenagers in the United States. If the sample isn’t representative of the population, the results of the study can be misleading, and the conclusions drawn from the study may not be accurate.

    One of the most common types of sampling error is called selection bias. This occurs when the sample used in a study is not randomly selected from the population being studied, but instead is selected in a way that skews the results. For example, if a media student is conducting a study on the viewing habits of teenagers in the United States, but the sample is taken only from affluent suburbs, the results of the study may not be representative of all teenagers in the United States.

    Another type of sampling error is called measurement bias. This occurs when the measurements used in the study are not accurate or precise enough to provide an accurate representation of the population being studied. For example, if a media student is conducting a study on the amount of time teenagers spend watching television, but the measurement tool used only asks about prime time viewing habits, the results of the study may not accurately represent the total amount of time teenagers spend watching television.

    Sampling error can have a significant effect on the conclusions drawn from a study. If the sample used in a study is not representative of the population being studied, the results of the study may not accurately reflect the true state of the population. This can lead to incorrect conclusions being drawn from the study, which can have negative consequences. For example, if a media student conducts a study on the viewing habits of teenagers in the United States and concludes that they watch more reality TV shows than any other type of programming, but the sample used in the study was biased toward a particular demographic, such as affluent suburban teenagers, the conclusions drawn from the study may not accurately reflect the true viewing habits of all teenagers in the United States. Sampling error is a significant issue in media studies and can have a profound effect on the conclusions drawn from a study. Media students need to ensure that the samples used in their research are representative of the populations being studied and that the measurements used in their research are accurate and precise. By doing so, media students can ensure that their research accurately reflects the state of the populations being studied and that the conclusions drawn from their research are valid.

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  • Replicabilty

    Replicability is a key aspect of scientific research that ensures the validity and reliability of results. In media studies, replicability is particularly important because of the subjective nature of many of the topics studied. This essay will discuss the importance of replicability in research for media students and provide examples of studies that have successfully achieved replicability.

    Replicability is the ability to reproduce the results of a study by using the same methods and procedures as the original study. It is an important aspect of scientific research because it ensures that the findings of a study are reliable and can be used to make informed decisions. Replicability also allows researchers to test the validity of their findings and helps to establish a foundation of knowledge that can be built upon by future research.

    In media studies, replicability is particularly important because of the subjective nature of the topics studied. Media studies often focus on the interpretation of media content by audiences and the effects of media on society. These topics can be difficult to study because they are influenced by a variety of factors, including culture, personal beliefs, and individual experiences. Replicability ensures that studies in media studies are conducted in a systematic and controlled manner, which reduces the impact of these factors on the results.

    One example of a study that successfully achieved replicability in media studies is the cultivation theory developed by George Gerbner. Cultivation theory proposes that television viewers’ perceptions of reality are shaped by the amount and nature of the content they are exposed to on television. In a series of studies conducted over several decades, Gerbner and his colleagues found that heavy television viewers are more likely to overestimate the amount of crime and violence in society and have a more fearful view of the world. These findings have been replicated in numerous studies, which has helped to establish the cultivation theory as a robust and reliable explanation of the effects of television on viewers.

    Another example of a study that achieved replicability in media studies is the uses and gratifications theory developed by Elihu Katz and Jay Blumler. The uses and gratifications theory proposes that audiences actively choose and use media to fulfill specific needs, such as information, entertainment, or social interaction. In a series of studies conducted over several decades, Katz and his colleagues found that audiences’ media use is influenced by a variety of factors, including individual needs, social and cultural norms, and media characteristics. These findings have been replicated in numerous studies, which has helped to establish the uses and gratifications theory as a robust and reliable explanation of audience behavior.

    Replicability is a critical aspect of scientific research that ensures the validity and reliability of results. In media studies, replicability is particularly important because of the subjective nature of many of the topics studied. Successful examples of replicability in media studies include the cultivation theory and the uses and gratifications theory, which have been replicated in numerous studies and have become robust and reliable explanations of media effects and audience behavior. By striving for replicability, media students can help to establish a foundation of knowledge that can be built upon by future research and contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of media in society.

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  • Reliability

    Reliability is an essential aspect of research, especially in the field of media studies. It refers to the consistency and dependability of research findings, which should be replicable over time and across different contexts. In other words, a reliable study should yield the same results when conducted by different researchers or at different times. Achieving reliability in research requires careful planning, methodology, and data analysis. This essay explains how media students can ensure reliability in their research and provides examples of reliable studies in the field.

    To achieve reliability in research, media students need to adhere to rigorous and consistent research methods. This means that they should design their studies with clear research questions, objectives, and hypotheses, and use appropriate research designs and sampling methods to minimize bias and errors. For instance, if a media student is investigating the impact of social media on political polarization, they should use a randomized controlled trial or a longitudinal study with a representative sample to ensure that their findings are not skewed by selection bias or confounding variables.

    Moreover, media students should use reliable and valid measurement tools to collect data, such as surveys, interviews, or content analysis. These tools should be tested for their reliability and validity before being used in the actual study. For example, if a media student is measuring media literacy, they should use a standardized and validated scale such as the Media Literacy Scale (MLQ) developed by Renee Hobbs, which has been shown to have high internal consistency and test-retest reliability.

    Additionally, media students should analyze their data using reliable statistical methods and software, such as SPSS or R. They should also report their findings accurately and transparently, providing sufficient details about their methodology, data, and limitations. This allows other researchers to replicate their study and verify their findings, which enhances the reliability and credibility of their research.

    One example of a reliable study in media studies is the research conducted by Pew Research Center on social media use in the United States. Pew Research Center has been conducting surveys on social media use since 2005, using consistent and standardized questions and methods across different surveys. This has allowed them to track changes and trends in social media use over time, and their findings have been widely cited and used by policymakers, journalists, and scholars.

    Another example is the research conducted by Sonia Livingstone and Julian Sefton-Green on young people’s digital lives. They conducted a qualitative study with 28 participants from diverse backgrounds and analyzed their interviews and online activities using grounded theory. They also used member checking and peer debriefing to enhance the trustworthiness and credibility of their findings. Their study has been praised for its rich and nuanced insights into young people’s digital practices and has influenced policy and practice in education and media literacy.

    In conclusion, achieving reliability in research is crucial for media students who want to produce valid and trustworthy findings. They should plan their studies carefully, use reliable methods and measurement tools, analyze their data accurately, and report their findings transparently. By doing so, they can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in media studies and inform policy and practice in the field.

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  • APA Style

    APA 7 style is a comprehensive formatting and citation system widely used in academic and professional writing. This essay will cover key aspects of APA 7, including in-text referencing, reference list formatting, and reporting statistical results, tables, and figures.

    In-Text Referencing

    In-text citations in APA 7 style provide brief information about the source directly in the text. The basic format includes the author’s last name and the year of publication. For example:

    • One author: (Smith, 2020)
    • Two authors: (Smith & Jones, 2020)
    • Three or more authors: (Smith et al., 2020)

    When quoting directly, include the page number: (Smith, 2020, p. 25).

    Reference List

    The reference list appears at the end of the paper on a new page. Key formatting rules include:

    • Double-space all entries
    • Use a hanging indent for each entry
    • Alphabetize entries by the first author’s last name

    Example reference list entry for a journal article:

    Smith, J. D., & Jones, A. B. (2020). Title of the article. Journal Name, 34, 123-145. https://doi.org/10.1234/example

    Reporting Statistical Results

    When reporting statistical results in APA 7 style:

    • Use italics for statistical symbols (e.g., M, SD, t, F, p)
    • Report exact p values to two or three decimal places
    • Use APA-approved abbreviations for statistical terms

    Example: The results were statistically significant (t(34) = 2.45, p = .019).

    Tables and Figures

    Tables and figures in APA 7 style should be:

    • Numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.)
    • Referenced in the text
    • Placed after the reference list

    Table example:

    VariableGroup AGroup B
    Mean25.328.7
    SD4.23.9

    Table 1. Comparison of means between Group A and Group B.

    For figures, include a clear and concise caption below the figure.

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  • Plagiarism

    Even though most student plagiarism is probably unintentional, it is in students’ best interests to become aware that failing to give credit where it is due can have serious consequences. For example, at Butte College, a student caught in even one act of academic dishonesty may face one or more of the following actions by his instructor or the college:

    • Receive a failing grade on the assignment
    • Receive a failing grade in the course
    • Receive a formal reprimand
    • Be suspended
    • Be expelled

    My paraphrasing is plagiarized?
    Of course, phrases used unchanged from the source should appear in quotation marks with a citation. But even paraphrasing must be attributed to the source whence it came, since it represents the ideas and conclusions of another person. Furthermore, your paraphrasing should address not only the words but the form, or structure, of the statement. The example that follows rewords (uses synonyms) but does not restructure the original statement:

    Original:
    To study the challenge of increasing the food supply, reducing pollution, and encouraging economic growth, geographers must ask where and why a region’s population is distributed as it is. Therefore, our study of human geography begins with a study of population (Rubenstein 37).

    Inadequately paraphrased (word substitution only) and uncited:
    To increase food supplies, ensure cleaner air and water, and promote a strong economy, researchers must understand where in a region people choose to live and why. So human geography researchers start by studying populations.

    This writer reworded a two-sentence quote. That makes it his, right? Wrong. Word substitution does not make a sentence, much less an idea, yours. Even if it were attributed to the author, this rewording is not enough; paraphrasing requires that you change the sentence structure as well as the words. Either quote the passage directly, or
    substantially change the original by incorporating the idea the sentences represent into your own claim:

    Adequately, substantially paraphrased and cited:
    As Rubenstein points out, distribution studies like the ones mentioned above are at the heart of human geography; they are an essential first step in planning and controlling development (37).

    Perhaps the best way to avoid the error of inadequate paraphrasing is to know clearly what your own thesis is. Then, before using any source, ask yourself, “Does this idea support my thesis? How?” This, after all, is the only reason to use any material in your paper. If your thesis is unclear in your own mind, you are more likely to lean too heavily on the statements and ideas of others. However, the ideas you find in your sources may not replace your own well thought-out thesis.

    Copy & paste is plagiarism?
    Copy & paste plagiarism occurs when a student selects and copies material from Internet sources and then pastes it directly into a draft paper without proper attribution. Copy & paste plagiarism may be partly a result of middle school and high school instruction that is unclear or lax about plagiarism issues. In technology-rich U.S. classrooms, students are routinely taught how to copy & paste their research from Internet sources into word processing documents. Unfortunately, instruction and follow-up in how to properly attribute this borrowed material tends to be sparse. The fact is, pictures and text (like music files) posted on the Internet are the intellectual property of their creators. If the authors make their material available for your use, you must give them credit for creating it. If you do not, you are stealing.

    How will my instructor know?
    If you imagine your instructor will not know that you have plagiarized, imagine it at your own risk. Some schools subscribe to anti-plagiarism sites that compare submitted papers to vast online databases very quickly and return search results listing “hits” on phrases found to be unoriginal. Some instructors use other methods of searching online for suspicious phrases in order to locate source material for work they suspect may be plagiarized.

    College instructors read hundreds of pages of published works every year. They know what is being written about their subject areas. At the same time, they read hundreds of pages of student-written papers. They know what student writing looks like. Writers, student or otherwise, do not usually stray far from their typical vocabulary and sentence structure, so if an instructor finds a phrase in your paper that does not “read” like the rest of the paper, he or she may become suspicious.

    Why cite?
    If you need reasons to cite beyond the mere avoidance of disciplinary consequences, consider the following:

    • Citing is honest. It is the right thing to do.
    • Citing allows a reader interested in your topic to follow up by accessing your sources and reading more. (Hey, it could happen!)
    • Citing shows off your research expertise-how deeply you read, how long you spent in the library stacks, how many different kinds of sources (books, journals, databases, and websites) you waded through.

    How can I avoid plagiarism?
    From the earliest stages of research, cultivate work habits that make accidental or lazy plagiarism less likely:

    • Be ready to take notes while you research. Distinguish between direct quotes and your own summaries. For example, use quotation marks or a different color pen for direct quotes, so you don’t have to guess later whether the words were yours or another author’s. For every source you read, note the author, title, and publication information before you start taking notes. This way you will not be tempted to gloss over a citation just because it is difficult to retrace your steps.
    • If you are reading an online source, write down the complete Internet address of the page you are reading right away (before you lose the page) so that you can go back later for bibliographic information. Look at the address carefully; you may have followed links off the website you originally accessed and be on an entirely different site. Many online documents posted on websites (rather than in online journals, for example) are not clearly attributed to an author in a byline. However, even if a website does not name the author in a conspicuous place, it may do so elsewhere–at the very bottom/end of the document, for example, or in another place on the website. Try clicking About Us to find the author. (At any rate, you should look in About Us for information about the site’s sponsor, which you need to include in Works Cited. The site sponsor may be the only author you find; you will cite it as an “institutional” author.) Even an anonymous Web source needs attribution to the website sponsor.

      Of course, instead of writing the above notes longhand you could copy & paste into a “Notes” document for later use; just make sure you copy & paste the address and attribution information, too, and not directly into your research paper
    • Try searching online for excerpts of your own writing. Search using quotation marks around some of your key sentences or phrases; the search engine will search for the exact phrase rather than all the individual words in the phrase. If you get “hits” suggesting plagiarism, even unintentional plagiarism, follow the links to the source material so that you can properly attribute these words or ideas to their authors.
    • Early in the semester, ask your instructors to discuss plagiarism and their policies regarding student plagiarism. Some instructors will allow rewrites after a first offense, for example, though many will not. And most instructors will report even a first offense to the appropriate dean.
    • Be aware of the boundary between your own ideas and the ideas of other people. Do your own thinking. Make your own connections. Reach your own conclusions. There really is no substitute for this process. No one else but you can bring your particular background and experience to bear on a topic, and your paper should reflect that.

    Works Cited
    Rubenstein, James M. The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography. Upper Saddle     River, NJ: Pearson Education. 2003.

  • Inductive versus Deductive

    As a media student, you are likely to come across two primary research methods: inductive and deductive research. Both approaches are important in the field of media research and have their own unique advantages and disadvantages. In this essay, we will explore these two methods of research, along with some examples to help you understand the differences between the two.

    Inductive research is a type of research that involves starting with specific observations or data and then moving to broader generalizations and theories (Theories, Models and Concepts) It is a bottom-up approach to research that focuses on identifying patterns and themes in the data to draw conclusions. Inductive research is useful when the research problem is new, and there is no existing theoretical framework to guide the study. This method is commonly used in qualitative research methods like ethnography, case studies, and grounded theory.

    An example of inductive research in media studies would be a study of how social media has changed the way people interact with news. The researcher would start by collecting data from social media platforms and observing how people engage with news content. From this data, the researcher could identify patterns and themes, such as the rise of fake news or the tendency for people to rely on social media as their primary news source. Based on these observations, the researcher could then develop a theory about how social media has transformed the way people consume and interact with news.

    On the other hand, deductive research involves starting with a theory or hypothesis (Developing a Hypothesis: A Guide for Researchers) and then testing it through observations and data. It is a top-down approach to research that begins with a general theory and seeks to prove or disprove it through empirical evidence. Deductive research is useful when there is an existing theory or hypothesis to guide the study. This method is commonly used in quantitative research methods like surveys and experiments.

    An example of deductive research in media studies would be a study of the impact of violent media on aggression. The researcher would start with a theory that exposure to violent media leads to an increase in aggressive behavior. The researcher would then test this theory through observations, such as measuring the aggression of participants who have been exposed to violent media versus those who have not. Based on the results of the study, the researcher could either confirm or reject the theory.

    Both inductive and deductive research are important in the field of media studies. Inductive research is useful when there is no existing theoretical framework, and the research problem is new. Deductive research is useful when there is an existing theory or hypothesis to guide the study. By understanding the differences between these two methods of research and their applications, you can choose the most appropriate research method for your media research project.

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  • How to use citations in your research

    1. In-text citations: In-text citations are used to give credit to the original author(s) of a source within the body of your writing. In media studies, in-text citations may include the name of the author, the title of the article or book, and the date of publication. For example:

    According to Jenkins (2006), “convergence culture represents a shift in the relations between media and culture, as consumers take control of the flow of media” (p. 2).

    In her book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Goffman (1959) discusses the ways in which individuals present themselves to others in social interactions.

    1. Direct quotations: Direct quotations are used to include the exact words from a source within your writing, usually to provide evidence or support for a particular argument or idea. In media studies, direct quotations may be enclosed in quotation marks and followed by an in-text citation that includes the author’s last name and the date of publication. For example:

    As Jenkins (2006) argues, “convergence represents a cultural shift as consumers are encouraged to seek out new information and make connections among dispersed media content” (p. 3).

    In their article “The Future of Media Literacy in a Digital Age,” Hobbs and Jensen (2009) assert that “media literacy education must evolve to keep pace with changing technologies and new media practices” (p. 22).

    1. Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing involves restating information from a source in your own words, while still giving credit to the original author(s). In media studies, paraphrased information should be followed by an in-text citation that includes the author’s last name and the date of publication. For example:

    Jenkins (2006) argues that convergence culture is characterized by a shift in power from media producers to consumers, as individuals take an active role in creating and sharing content.

    According to Hobbs and Jensen (2009), media literacy education needs to adapt to keep up with changing media practices and new technologies.

    1. Secondary sources: In some cases, you may want to cite a source that you have not read directly, but have found through another source. In media studies, you should always try to locate and cite the original source, but if this is not possible, you can use the phrase “as cited in” before the secondary source. For example:

    In her analysis of gender and media representation, Smith (2007) argues that women are often portrayed in stereotypical and limiting roles (as cited in Jones, 2010).

    When writing in media studies, there are different citation methods you can use to give credit to the original author(s) and provide evidence to support your arguments. In-text citations, direct quotations, paraphrasing, and secondary sources can all be effective ways to incorporate citations into your writing. Remember to use citations appropriately and sparingly, and always consult the specific citation guidelines for your chosen citation style.

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  • First Step

    As a student, you may be required to conduct research for a project, paper, or presentation. Research is a vital skill that can help you understand a topic more deeply, develop critical thinking skills, and support your arguments with evidence. Here are some basics of research that every student should know.

    What is research?

    Research is the systematic investigation of a topic to establish facts, draw conclusions, or expand knowledge. It involves collecting and analyzing information from a variety of sources to gain a deeper understanding of a subject.

    Types of research

    There are several types of research methods that you can use. Here are the three most common types:

    1. Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data and analyzing it using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to test hypotheses or measure the effects of specific interventions or treatments.

    2. Qualitative research involves collecting non-numerical data, such as observations, interviews, or open-ended survey responses. This type of research is often used to explore complex social or psychological phenomena and to gain an in-depth understanding of a topic.

    3. Mixed methods research involves using both quantitative and qualitative methods to answer research questions. This type of research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a topic by combining the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative data.

    Steps of research

    Research typically involves the following steps:

    1. Choose a topic: Select a topic that interests you and is appropriate for your assignment or project.
    2. Develop a research question: Identify a question that you want to answer through your research.
    3. Select a research method: Choose a research method that is appropriate for your research question and topic.
    4. Collect data: Collect information using the chosen research method. This may involve conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations, or collecting data from secondary sources such as books, articles, government reports, or academic journals.
    5. Analyze data: Examine your research data to draw conclusions and develop your argume
    6. Present findings: Share your research and conclusions with others through a paper, presentation, or other format.

    Tips for successful research

    Here are some tips to help you conduct successful research:

    • Start early: Research can be time-consuming, so give yourself plenty of time to complete your project.
    • Use multiple sources: Draw information from a variety of sources to get a comprehensive understanding of your topic.
    • Evaluate sources: Use critical thinking skills to evaluate the accuracy, reliability, and relevance of your sources.
    • Take notes: Keep track of your sources and take notes on key information as you conduct research.
    • Organize your research: Develop an outline or organizational structure to help you keep track of your research and stay on track.
    • Use AI to brainstorm, get a broader insight in your topic, and what possible gaps of problems might be. Use it not to execute and completely write your final work
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